Editing Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917

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{{Short description|U.S. law}}
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{{redirect|TWEA|the alcoholic beverage known in slang as Twea|Twisted Tea}}
{{Infobox U.S. legislation
|name = Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917
|fullname = An Act to define, regulate, and punish trading with the enemy, and for other purposes.
|acronym = TWEA
|nickname =
|enacted by = 65th
|effective date = October 6, 1917
|public law url =
|cite public law = {{USPL|65|91}}
|cite statutes at large = {{USStat|40|411}}
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|introducedin = House
|introducedbill = {{USBill|65|H.R.|4960}}
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|signedpresident = [[Woodrow Wilson]]
|signeddate = October 6, 1917
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The '''Trading with the Enemy Act''' (TWEA) of 1917 ({{USStat|40|411}}, codified at {{usc|12|95}} and {{usc|50|4301}} et seq.) is a [[United States federal law]], enacted on October 6, 1917, in response to the [[United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)|United States declaration of war on Germany]] on April 6, 1917. It continues to give the [[President of the United States]] the power to oversee or restrict any and all trade between the [[United States]] and its enemies in times of war. TWEA was amended in 1933 by the [[Emergency Banking Act]] to extend the president’s authority also in peace time. It was amended again in 1977 by the [[International Emergency Economic Powers Act]] (IEEPA) to restrict again the application of TWEA only to times of war, while the IEEPA was intended to be used in peace time.<ref>{{cite act |type=Public Law |index=95-223 |date=December 28, 1977 |article= |article-type= |legislature= |title=An Act with respect to the powers of the President in time of war or national emergency|trans-title= |page= |url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-91/pdf/STATUTE-91-Pg1625.pdf |language=english}}</ref>

TWEA is sometimes confused with the IEEPA, which grants somewhat broader powers to the President, and which is invoked during states of emergency when the United States is not at war.  The IEEPA was passed in an attempt to rein in perceived abuses by the US President of the TWEA by making the powers subject to the [[National Emergencies Act]] (NEA). The NEA included a [[Legislative veto in the United States|legislative veto]] to allow Congress to terminate a national emergency with a [[concurrent resolution]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Casey |first1=Christopher A. |display-authors=et al. |title=The International Emergency Economic Powers Act: Origins, Evolution, and Use |date=March 20, 2019 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, DC |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R45618.pdf |access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref> However, the U.S. Supreme Court found such legislative vetoes unconstitutional in ''[[Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha]]''. Following the Court's decision, Congress amended the NEA to require a [[joint resolution]].<ref>{{cite act |type=Public Law |index=99-93 |date=August 16, 1985 |article= |article-type= |legislature=U.S. Congress |title=An act to authorize appropriations for fiscal years 1986 and 1987 for the Department of State, the United States Information Agency, the Board for International Broadcasting, and for other purposes.|trans-title= |page= |url=http://uscode.house.gov/statutes/pl/99/93.pdf |language=english}} See also {{Cite journal|last=Coates|first=Benjamin A.|date=July 2018|title=The Secret Life of Statutes: A Century of the Trading with the Enemy Act|journal=Modern American History|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=151–172|doi=10.1017/mah.2018.12|issn=2515-0456|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The law set the basis for [[Economic sanctions|sanctions]] by the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Coates|first=Benjamin A.|date=2018|title=The Secret Life of Statutes: A Century of the Trading with the Enemy Act |journal=Modern American History |language=en| volume=1|issue=2|pages=151–172|doi=10.1017/mah.2018.12|issn=2515-0456|doi-access=free}}</ref> As of 2023, [[Cuba]] is the only [[United States embargo against Cuba|country restricted]] under TWEA.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1345216431 |title=Sanctions as War: Anti-Imperialist Perspectives on American Geo-Economic Strategy |date=2023 |publisher= Haymarket Books|isbn=978-1-64259-812-4 |location= |pages=132 |oclc=1345216431 |last1=Davis |first1=Stuart }}</ref> [[North Korea]] was removed from the provisions of TWEA in 2008, although restrictions under IEEPA authority remain in effect.<ref name="nk">{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7476625.stm|title=US to ease North Korea sanctions |date=2008-06-26|access-date=2008-06-27|work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Overview of Sanctions with North Korea|url=http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Programs/Documents/nkorea.txt|publisher=U.S. Treasury|access-date=22 November 2013}}</ref>

==History==
The [[United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)|United States declared war on Germany]] on April 6, 1917. TWEA was enacted on October 6, 1917. By executive order on October 12, 1917, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] created the [[War Trade Board]] under [[Vance McCormick]], with the authority to control all US imports and exports. This sought to conserve supplies and shipping for Allied use, and [[Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)|prevent goods from arriving in enemy hands]] by, for example, restricting supplies to Germany's neutral trading partners.<ref>{{cite web|title=Records of the War Trade Board (RG 182)|website = National Archives|url = https://www.archives.gov/research/foreign-policy/related-records/rg-182}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://harrisburg2.vmhost.psu.edu/hum/McCormick/vance/essays/wartrade.htm|title=An Overview of the War Trade Board|author=Brian M. Moore|year = 1999| website=Vance McCormick Articles}}</ref> On October 22, 1917, by Executive Order 2729-A he also created the [[Office of Alien Property Custodian]] (APC) under TWEA with power to confiscate property from anyone whose actions might be considered a possible threat to the war effort. Initially, the Custodian confiscated the property of [[Internment of German Americans|interned natives of Germany]] and of businesses, such as the [[Bayer]] chemical company.<ref name=Smithsonian>{{cite journal|last1=Gross|first1=Daniel A.|title=The U.S. Confiscated Half a Billion Dollars in Private Property During WWI: America's home front was the site of internment, deportation, and vast property seizure |journal=Smithsonian |date=28 July 2014|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/us-confiscated-half-billion-dollars-private-property-during-wwi-180952144/|access-date=6 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="Gross">{{cite journal|last1=Gross|first1=Daniel A.|title=Chemical Warfare: From the European Battlefield to the American Laboratory |journal=Distillations |date=Spring 2015|volume=1|issue=1|pages=16–23| url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/chemical-warfare-from-the-european-battlefield-to-the-american-laboratory|access-date=March 20, 2018}}</ref> On December 7, 1917, the [[United States declaration of war on Austria-Hungary|United States declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire]], the other [[Central Power]].

In 1933, newly-elected President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] issued [[Proclamation 2039]], which declared a national emergency and imposed a bank holiday. The proclamation cited TWEA (obliquely referenced as the "Act of October 6, 1917") as the basis of his authority.<ref>{{cite act |type=Presidential Proclamation |index=2039 |date=March 6, 1933 |article= |article-type= |legislature= |title=Declaring Bank Holiday |trans-title= |page= |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-2039-declaring-bank-holiday |language=english}}</ref> Aware that such action was legally dubious since the United States was not at war, Roosevelt asked Congress to ratify his actions by passing the [[Emergency Banking Relief Act]], which amended TWEA to enable its use during any "period of national emergency declared by the President." President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], using these new authorities, issued [[Executive Order 6102]] to limit gold ownership. These restrictions continued until January 1, 1975. The TWEA has been amended several other times.

During and after both World Wars, property frozen by the United States, belonging to neutral or allied nations, was returned and property belonging to enemy nations was continuously confiscated until hostilities ceased.  Some of the confiscated enemy property would not be returned later.  Agreements to return some or most assets in exchange for seized American assets and reparations for war-damaged American interests by the new governments of the former enemy nations were later concluded.  Nations or organizations that were deemed less responsible for starting the wars receive much more favorable treatment.
The United States  instituted the Italian Enemy Act of 1947 to deal with former  members of the Mussolini regime from  controlling interest in U.S. based businesses under the TWEA Act of 1917.

On December 16, 1950, the United States imposed economic sanctions against North Korea under TWEA,<ref>Harry S. Truman, Proclamation No. 2914, December 16, 1950, 15 ''Federal Register'' 9029</ref> which lasted until 2008.<ref name="nk"/>

On May 13, 1966, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] abolished the [[Office of Alien Property Custodian]] by [[Executive Order 11281]], effective June 30 of that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/131.html#131.1 |title=Records of the office of Alien Property |publisher=National Archives |access-date=June 6, 2018|date=2016-08-15 }}</ref>

On August 15, 1971, President [[Richard M. Nixon]] issued [[Proclamation 4074]], which declared a national emergency under TWEA and imposed a 10% ad valorem supplemental duty on all dutiable articles imported into the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-4074-imposition-supplemental-duty-for-balance-payments-purposes| title=Proclamation 4074—Imposition of Supplemental Duty for Balance of Payments Purposes|publisher=The Presidency Project|access-date=April 1, 2019|date=2019-04-01}}</ref>

== Countries sanctioned under the Trading with the Enemy Act ==

=== Albania ===
[[Principality of Albania|Albania]] was invaded by the Central Powers during WWI.  While the Central Powers occupied Albania, its assets from the areas they occupied were frozen to prevent the Central Powers from using Albanian assets. Because of this policy, once Central Powers occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMJOsMgGqHwC|title=Alien Property Custodian Report|last=Alien Property Custodian|first=United States|publisher=Government Printing Office|year=1919|isbn=9780405097645|location=Washington DC|pages=7, 8}}</ref>

During WWII, [[Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)|Albania]] was listed in 1941, to prevent its assets from being used first by the invading fascist Italy and then by the invading Nazi Germany,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title50/chapter53&edition=prelim |title=[USC10] 50 USC Ch. 53: TRADING WITH THE ENEMY|website=uscode.house.gov|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Coates|first=Benjamin A.|date=July 2018|title=The Secret Life of Statutes: A Century of the Trading with the Enemy Act|journal=Modern American History|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=151–172|doi=10.1017/mah.2018.12|issn=2515-0456|doi-access=free}}</ref> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32437000545281;view=1up;seq=8|title=Annual Report Office of Alien Property|last=Department of Justice|first=United States of America|publisher=Government Printing Office|year=1947|location=Washington DC|pages=1, 2, 6, 7, 58}}</ref>

=== Andorra ===
[[Andorra]] remained officially neutral during WWII. However, it was a tiny country between Axis-friendly Spain and the German puppet state [[Vichy France]]. Andorra was listed in 1941, to prevent its assets from being used by Nazi Germany and Vichy France,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Austria ===
[[Austria]] was invaded and annexed by Germany. It was listed in 1941, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />  and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Austro-Hungarian Empire ===
The [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]] was sanctioned in 1917 as an enemy state.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> It continued to be sanctioned until after its defeat and dissolution in 1918 into Austria and Hungary. The United States remained at "war" with the then-nonexistent dissolved country for several years until deciding to ratify peace treaties with Austria and Hungary separately 1921. No actual combat is known to have taken place between the United States and Austria or Hungary after the empire's dissolution and before the ratification of the peace treaties.

=== Belgium ===
[[Belgium]]'s property was frozen in the event the property was from the areas the invading Central Powers occupied during WWI to prevent the Central Powers from using its assets. If the area was not occupied, the assets were not frozen. Because of this policy, once Central Powers occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.<ref name=":3" />

Belgium was listed again in 1940, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Bulgaria ===
[[Bulgaria]] was a German and Austro-Hungarian ally during WWI and some of its property was frozen or confiscated by the United States.<ref name=":3" /> The United States and Bulgaria avoided declaring war on each other during WWI.

During WWII Bulgaria was an Axis power and was sanctioned again in 1941.<ref name=":1" /> Sanctions were  lifted in 1945.<ref name=":5" /> In 1963 the government of Bulgaria agreed to accept American claims for lost property and war damages so the Bulgarians were allowed to reclaim the property America seized during WWII.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32437000545133;view=1up;seq=49| title=Annual Report Office of Alien Property|last=Department of Justice|first=United States|publisher=Government Publishing Office|year=1963|location=Washington DC|pages=18}}</ref>

=== Cambodia ===
[[Cambodia]] under the [[Khmer Rouge]] regime was sanctioned in 1975 as a result of the Vietnam War.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1989-06-11-8902090190-story.html|title=No-No Travel|last=Bly|first=Laura Bly|website=chicagotribune.com|date=June 11, 1989 |language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref>  Trading With the Enemy Act sanctions were lifted in 1992.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/places/asia/cambodian-political-geography/cambodia |title=Cambodia|website=www.encyclopedia.com|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref>

=== China ===
China was listed on two occasions. [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|The Republic of China]] was first listed in 1941 to prevent invading Japan from using Chinese assets during WWII. China was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" /> After WWII the [[China|People's Republic of China]] was sanctioned and listed in 1950 for their [[People's Volunteer Army|involvement]] in the [[Korean War]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> After President Richard Nixon's "opening with China" sanctions were lifted in 1975.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/trade-enemy-acts|title=Trade with The Enemy Acts {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |website=www.encyclopedia.com|access-date=2019-05-20}}</ref>

=== Cuba ===
Following the [[Cuban Missile Crisis|Cuban missile crisis]], the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion|Bay of Pigs invasion]], and the [[United States embargo against Cuba|nationalization of U.S. property]] by the Castro regime, the United States imposed sanctions on [[Cuba]] in 1963.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> TWEA sanctions continued throughout the Cold War because the US and Cuba often found themselves on opposite sides in various proxy conflicts throughout Latin America and Africa. The sanctions on Cuba were increased after the Cuban air force killed American protesters who were known to violate Cuban airspace. Cuba is currently the only state still under sanctions under TWEA.

=== Czechoslovakia ===
[[Czechoslovakia]] was invaded and annexed by Germany. In 1941 it was listed to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />  Czechoslovakia was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" /> Czechoslovakian assets were held until the government of Czechoslovakia agreed to return assets its German installed occupation government expropriated during WWII. These restrictions were lifted sometime between 1964 and 1967 after an agreement was reached.

=== Danzig ===
[[Free City of Danzig|Danzig]] was listed in 1941 to prevent its assets from being used by Nazi Germany.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Germany was forced to give up the city of Danzig after WWI. Because it was a former German city, there was a considerable amount of support for Nazi Germany to re-annex the territory within the mostly ethnic German Free City of Danzig. Danzig was annexed early in WWII. Sanctions were continued until Danzig ceased to exist.{{clarify|date=May 2025}} Danzig became part of Poland and was renamed [[Gdańsk]]. Danzig's German inhabitants were expelled to Germany as part of the Soviet proposal to prevent the German diaspora outside German borders after WWI from helping start another world war by requesting annexation.

=== Denmark ===
[[Denmark]] was listed in 1940 to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== East Germany ===
[[East Germany]], or eastern Germany before 1949, and East Berlin-origin assets were held until the government of East German agreed to return assets the Nazi German government expropriated during WWII. These restrictions were lifted sometime between 1964 and 1967 after an agreement was reached.

=== Estonia ===
[[Estonia]] was listed in 1940, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" /> Estonian assets were held until the government of Estonia agreed to return assets its German-installed occupation government expropriated during WWII. These restrictions were lifted sometime between 1964 and 1967 after an agreement was reached.

=== Finland ===
[[Finland]] was invaded in 1939 by the Soviet Union. As a result of this, it allied itself with Germany against the Soviet Union during most of WWII. It was consequently sanctioned in 1941.<ref name=":1" /> Finland was considered an ally of an enemy under TWTEA until the Lapland war in which Finland changed sides. Finland would have then been eligible for the classification of "allies or neutrals" and delisted with the rest of that group in 1946.

=== France ===
During WWI, [[France]]'s property was frozen in the event the property was from the areas occupied by the invading Central Powers to prevent the Central Powers from using its assets. If the area was not occupied, the assets were not frozen.  Because of this policy, once the Central Powers' occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.<ref name=":3" />

During WWII, France was listed in 1940 to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />  France was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Germany ===
The [[German Empire|Empire of Germany]] was first sanctioned in 1917 for its role in WWI. Germany remained sanctioned until a U.S.-German peace treaty was ratified in 1921.

[[Nazi Germany]] was sanctioned again in 1941 for its role in WWII.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Sanctions were lifted in 1946 by Executive Order 9788 and the [[Office of Alien Property]] created in the [[Department of Justice]].<ref name=":5" /> As Germany was judged to have a primary role in starting both world wars, the United States policy was to confiscate and sell off German assets that Germans acquired before 1946. The [[War Claims Act of 1948]] distributed the vested property if a claim could be established.

=== Greece ===
[[Greece]] was listed in 1941, to prevent assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Hong Kong ===
[[Hong Kong]] was listed in 1941, to prevent its assets from being used by invading Japan,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

===  Haiti===
The military government of [[Haiti]] led by  General [[Raoul Cedras]] and affiliated members such as the CIA-created FRAPH, was listed under the International Economic Powers Act (IEPA Act), now with the Trading With the Enemy Act that has its roots in WWI and the EIPA Act during the Cold War between the US and the former Soviet Union. Many members of the [[Haitian Army]] who had properties in the US, their properties either frozen or confiscated by the [[Clinton administration]] until they agreed to the return of deposed Haitian President [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]].{{cn|date=March 2021}}

=== Hungary ===
[[Hungary]] was an Axis power and was sanctioned in 1941.<ref name=":1" /> Sanctions were  lifted in 1945.<ref name=":5" /> Hungarian assets were held until the government of Hungary agreed to return assets it expropriated during WWII and accept claims for war damages caused by Hungary.

=== Italy ===
[[Italy]] was an Axis power until Italy was invaded and Mussolini's government deposed.  Italy was sanctioned in 1941.<ref name=":1" /> Sanctions were lifted in 1943 after the allies installed a friendly government and it switched sides.<ref name=":5" /> Italy accepted an agreement to return expropriated American property and accept claims for war damages so it was allowed to reclaim its seized property.

=== Japan ===
In 1940 US President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] sanctioned [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] to punish it for invading [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|China]] and [[French Indochina]] under the [[Export Control Act]]. In 1941, Roosevelt imposed sanctions under TWEA.<ref name=":0" /> Some claim that this was the reason for the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] later in 1941.<ref name=":1" /> Sanctions were lifted in 1946.<ref name=":5" /> Japan was widely unpopular for the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Because Japan was the reason for the United States entering WWII, and because many Americans wanted to stay out of European wars during both wartime periods, Japanese assets that the Japanese acquired before 1946 were confiscated and divested. The [[War Claims Act of 1948]] distributed the vested property if a claim could be established.

=== Latvia ===
[[Latvia]] was listed in 1940, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" /> Latvian assets were held until the government of Latvia agreed to return assets its German-installed occupation government expropriated during WWII. These restrictions were lifted sometime between 1964 and 1967 after an agreement was reached.

=== Liechtenstein ===
[[Liechtenstein]] was listed in 1941. Liechtenstein was perceived by some allies to be on Germany's side, even though it remained neutral.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Liechtenstein was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Lithuania ===
[[Lithuania]] was listed in 1940, to prevent assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" /> Lithuanian assets were held until the government of Lithuania agreed to return assets its German-installed occupation government expropriated during WWII. These restrictions were lifted sometime between 1964 and 1967 after an agreement was reached.

=== Luxembourg ===
[[Luxembourg]] was listed in 1940, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Monaco ===
[[Monaco]] was listed in 1940, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> and was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Montenegro ===
[[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]] was invaded by the Central Powers during WWI. While the Central Powers occupied Montenegro, its assets from the areas they occupied were frozen to prevent them from using Montenegrin assets. Because of this policy, once the Central Powers' occupation ended, the sanctions were effectively lifted.<ref name=":3" />

=== North Korea ===
{{Main|Sanctions against North Korea}}
[[North Korea]] was sanctioned in 1950 for aggression in the Korean War. The war is still officially in effect, with no peace treaty signed, and the sanctions have been retained due to North Korean terrorism, nuclear proliferation, and continued aggression toward the United States.<ref name=":0" /> Trading with the Enemy Act sanctions were lifted in 2008 in response to North Korea's steps toward nuclear disarmament and commitments to continue dismantling its nuclear weapons program.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=91934883|title=U.S. Lifts N. Korea Trade Sanctions|website=NPR.org|language=en|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref> However, North Korea later developed and tested several more nuclear weapons, indicating that it was lying.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41139445|title=North Korea hails 'perfect' H-bomb test|date=2017-09-03|access-date=2019-05-06|language=en-GB}}</ref> North Korea's designation was grandfathered from an old version of the law that allowed it to be used absent a declaration of war.  Because there is no declaration of war in force between the United States and North Korea, TWEA sanctions cannot be reapplied, but it was re-sanctioned for reneging on its commitments through the IEEPA, along with other laws, and through UN Security Council resolutions.

=== North Vietnam ===
[[North Vietnam]] was sanctioned in 1964 during the Vietnam War.<ref name=":6" />  Sanctions were continued until North Vietnam ceased to exist and were inherited by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

=== Norway ===
[[Norway]] was listed in 1940 to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />  Norway was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Ottoman Empire ===
The [[Ottoman Empire]] was one of the Central Powers, an ally of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary and the Kingdom of Bulgaria, which was sanctioned alongside its allies in 1917 with the Act, though entering the war later on. The Ottoman Empire and the United States are not known to have fought each other during the war, except for smaller-scale [[Naval warfare|naval conflicts]] and bombardments. And little, if any, property was seized from [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]], as the Ottoman Empire had few resources to be seized that would contribute to the war and economic effort within the United States.  

The Office of the Alien Property Custodian judged that seizing the small amount of non-war related Ottoman property that was present in the United States at that time would be counter-productive, and would later on likely invite the Ottoman Empire to seize a larger amount of American property back as in-advance.{{clarify|date=May 2025}} Thus, the United States did not want to provoke the Ottomans in a way that might result in them targeting US affiliates, companies, property and citizens living within the lands and areas they controlled in many ways,{{clarify|date=May 2025}} and prompt unnecessary mutual declarations of war.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Trask |first=Roger R. |title=The United States Response to Turkish Nationalism and Reform, 1914-1939 |date=1971 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0-8166-6048-3 |jstor=10.5749/j.ctttt9v7}}</ref>

They remained sanctioned even after their defeat by signing the [[Armistice of Mudros|Mudros Armistice]] in 1918 until their dissolution with the later-to-be [[Treaty of Sèvres|revoked Peace Treaty of Sèvres]] in 1921 when the sanctions were no longer in effect. 

The Americans were not going to be directly involved in the [[Turkish War of Independence]] which would follow after the signing of Sèvres, nor to implement any official sanctions, but would support [[Entente Cordiale|Entente]] and [[Hellenic Armed Forces|Greek]] forces. Many US Congressmen later unofficially criticised the [[Treaty of Lausanne|Lausanne Declaration Treaty]] that followed the independence war, and proclaimed it invalid, rejecting it by still supporting the post-European and colonial claims on Turkish lands in the [[Balkans]] and [[Anatolia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lippe |first1=John M. Vander |title=The 'Other' Treaty of Lausanne: The American Public and Official Debate on Turkish-American Relations |journal=The Turkish Yearbook of International Relations |date=1993 |volume=23 |pages=31–63 |doi=10.1501/Intrel_0000000176|doi-access=free }}</ref>

These rejections were later disregarded, and the United States of America formally established normal and friendly relations with the newly-established modern, and more [[Western world|Western-sided]], [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]] in 1927.

Thus, the new Republic of Turkey was not affected by any American or Allied sanctions any more, neither shortly after the end of the Independence War and the signing of the Lausanne Treaty nor during WWII.

=== Poland ===
[[Poland]] was listed in 1941 to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />  Poland was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Portugal ===
[[Portugal]] was listed in 1941. While neutral, it traded raw materials used in military production with Germany, though it gave much more assistance and trade to the Allies than the Axis.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/civilian/rg-84-portugal.html|title=RG 84: Portugal|date=2016-08-15|website=National Archives|language=en|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref>  Portugal was delisted in 1948.<ref name=":4" />

=== Romania ===
[[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] was invaded by the Central Powers during WWI. While the Central Powers occupied Romania, its assets from the areas they occupied were frozen to prevent them from using Romanian assets. Because of this policy, the sanctions were effectively lifted once the Central Powers' occupation ended.<ref name=":3" />

In World War II Romania was an Axis power and sanctioned in 1940.<ref name=":1" />  Sanctions were lifted in 1945.<ref name=":5" />  Romanian assets were held until the government of Romania agreed to return assets its government expropriated during World War II and accept claims for war damage caused by Romania.

Romania has a long history of being misspelled by previous members of the government of the United States. Rumania and Roumania are common misspellings used in government documents.

=== Russia ===
The [[Russian Empire]]'s property was frozen in the event the property was from the areas the invading Central Powers occupied during WWI to prevent the Central Powers from using Russian assets.  If the area was not occupied, the assets were not frozen.  Because of this policy, once the Central Powers' occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.<ref name=":3" />

=== San Marino ===
[[San Marino]] was listed in 1941.  San Marino was perceived to be part of the Axis, though it remained neutral.<ref name=":1" />  San Marino was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Serbia ===
[[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] was invaded by the Central Powers during WWI.  While the Central Powers occupied Serbia, its assets from the areas they occupied were frozen to prevent the Central Powers from using Serb assets. Because of this policy, once the Central Powers' occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.<ref name=":3" />

=== Spain ===
[[Spain]] was listed in 1941 for aiding the Axis though officially remaining neutral.<ref name=":1" /> Spain was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Sweden ===
[[Sweden]] was listed in 1941.  While Sweden was officially neutral, it aided both sides during WWII to avoid being at war with either.<ref name=":1" />  Sweden was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Switzerland ===
[[Switzerland]] was listed in 1941.  Although neutral during WWII, it engaged in combat against both sides for infringing on its airspace or territory.<ref name=":1" />  Switzerland was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Thailand ===
[[Thailand]] was sanctioned in 1941.  Thailand was invaded by the Japanese and as a negotiated settlement to the conflict, they became a Japanese ally during WWII.  After Japan was defeated, Thailand's subsequent prime minister said the previous government did not get{{clarify|date=May 2025}} a valid declaration of war and the previous prime minister's unilateral declaration was null and void.<ref name=":1" />  The Office of Alien Property considered Thailand enemy-occupied instead of an enemy power so it was delisted in 1946 and eligible to get its property back.<ref name=":5" />

=== The Netherlands ===
[[Netherlands|The Netherlands]] was listed in 1940 to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />  The Netherlands was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

=== Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ===
The [[Soviet Union]] was sanctioned several times under this act, though for a relatively short period.  It was first listed in 1941 to prevent assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany and other invading Axis powers.<ref name=":1" />  The Soviet Union was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />  Later it was sanctioned during four brief periods from 1972 to 1976 when other Presidential economic powers lapsed due to not being renewed by Congress during the Cold War.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

=== United States ===
Franklin D. Roosevelt used the Trading with the Enemy Act to shut down financial institutions and declare a "bank holiday" to prevent runs on the banks during the Great Depression in 1933.  It was also used to outlaw most ownership of gold in an attempt to prop up the gold-backed dollar.  The gold ownership ban was lifted by congressional amendment and gold was no longer used to back printed dollars.

In 1968 Lyndon Johnson used the law to restrict capital exports.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-11387-governing-certain-capital-transfers-abroad|title=Executive Order 11387—Governing Certain Capital Transfers Abroad {{!}} The American Presidency Project|website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref>

In 1971 Nixon used the TWEA for currency manipulation in an attempt to boost US exports.<ref name=":0" />

In 1982 the United States Treasury Department announced the termination of the Presidential Proclamations and executive orders for the emergencies relating to the 1933 Great Depression ending all domestically oriented TWEA related programs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19960820_95-753_9f0fe5a5990563d678b0867f5693e5da564e1d24.pdf|title=Presidential Emergency Powers: The So-Called"War Powers Act of 1933"|last=(name [of the author] redacted)|date=20 August 1996|website=everycrsreport.com|access-date=18 May 2019}}</ref>

=== Vietnam ===
[[Vietnam|The Socialist Republic of Vietnam]] was sanctioned in 1975 as a result of the Vietnam War.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> TWEA sanctions were lifted in 1994.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/04/world/opening-vietnam-clinton-drops-19-year-ban-us-trade-with-vietnam-cites-hanoi-s.html|title=Opening to Vietnam; Clinton Drops 19-Year Ban on U.s. Trade with Vietnam; Cites Hanoi's Help on M.i.a.'s|last=Jehl|first=Douglas|date=1994-02-04|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-05-06|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

=== Yugoslavia ===
[[Yugoslavia]] was listed in 1941 to prevent assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />  Yugoslavia was delisted in 1946.<ref name=":5" />

==See also==
* [[Espionage Act of 1917]]
* [[International Emergency Economic Powers Act]]
* [[Trading with the Enemy Act]] – an overview of such acts in several countries
* [[Senate Report 93-549]]
* [[War Powers Act (disambiguation)]] – links to other related acts
** [[War Powers Act of 1941]]
* [[War Claims Act of 1948]]

==External links==
*[http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Documents/twea.pdf U.S. Treasury]
*[http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title50/chapter53&edition=prelim US House Code]
*[https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/102152628 1947 to 1979 reports of the Office of the Alien Property Custodian]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:United States federal criminal legislation]]
[[Category:United States federal trade legislation]]
[[Category:1917 in international relations]]
[[Category:1917 in American law]]
[[Category:United States foreign relations legislation]]
[[Category:Economic warfare]]
[[Category:Sanctions legislation]]