Editing Trait theory

{{short description|Approach to the study of human personality}}
{{Psychology sidebar}}
In [[psychology]], '''trait theory''' (also called '''dispositional theory''') is an approach to the study of human [[personality psychology|personality]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://dictionary.apa.org/trait-theory | title=APA Dictionary of Psychology }}</ref> Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of ''traits'', which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, [[thought]], and [[emotion]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kassin|first=Saul|author-link=Saul Kassin|year=2003|title=Psychology|location=U.S.|publisher=Prentice-Hall, Inc.|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> According to this perspective, traits are aspects of personality that are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing whereas others are not), are relatively consistent over situations, and influence behaviour. Traits are in contrast to [[Mental state|state]]s, which are more transitory dispositions. Traits such as [[Extraversion and introversion|extraversion vs. introversion]] are measured on a spectrum, with each person placed somewhere along it.

Trait theory suggests that some natural behaviours may give someone an advantage in a position of leadership.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Northouse |first=Peter Guy |url=https://cmc.marmot.org/Record/.b31214915 |title=Leadership: theory and practice / |date=2010 |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=978-1-4129-7488-2|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>

There are two approaches to define traits: as internal causal properties or as purely descriptive summaries. The internal causal definition states that traits influence our behaviours, leading us to do things in line with that trait. On the other hand, traits as descriptive summaries are descriptions of our actions that do not try to infer causality.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Abel|first1=Steve|title=What Is a Trait Two Basic Formulations|url=https://www.doctorabel.us/personality-psychology/what-is-a-trait-two-basic-formulations.html|website=Personality Psychology|access-date=6 February 2018|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>

==History==
American psychologist [[Gordon Allport]] was an early pioneer in the study of traits. This early work was viewed as the beginning of the modern psychological study of personality.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Long|first=Lewis M. K.|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/8bf99aa9b92cd48af4a112ceb7a01078/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1816607|url-access=subscription|title=Alfred Adler and Gordon W. Allport: A Comparison on Certain Topics in Personality Theory|journal=American Journal of Individual Psychology|location=Chicago, Ill.|volume=10|number=1|year=1952|language=en|access-date=2018-03-23|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> He also referred to traits within his work as dispositions. In his approach, "cardinal" traits are those that dominate and shape a person's behavior; their ruling passions/obsessions, such as a need for money, fame etc. By contrast, "central" traits such as honesty are characteristics found in some degree in every person – and finally "secondary" traits are those seen only in certain circumstances (such as particular likes or dislikes that a very close friend may know), which are included to provide a complete picture of human complexity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allport |first1=Gordon W. |title=Pattern and growth in personality |url=https://archive.org/details/patterngrowthinp00allprich |url-access=registration |date=1961 |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |isbn=978-0030108105 |edition=14 print.|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>

A wide variety of alternative theories and scales were later developed, including:
* [[Raymond Cattell]]'s [[16PF Questionnaire]]
* [[J. P. Guilford]]'s [[Structure of Intellect]]
* [[Henry Murray]]'s [[Murray's system of needs|System of Needs]]
* [[Timothy Leary]]'s [[Interpersonal circumplex]]
* [[Myers–Briggs Type Indicator]]
* [[Jeffrey Alan Gray|Gray]]'s [[Gray's biopsychological theory of personality|Biopsychological theory of personality]]

Currently, two general approaches are the most popular:{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}
* [[Eysenck Personality Questionnaire]], (EPQ) ("the three-factor model"). Using [[factor analysis]], [[Hans Eysenck]] suggested that personality is reducible to three major traits: [[neuroticism]], extraversion, and psychoticism.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|author-link=Hans Eysenck|first=Hans|last=Eysenck|year=1967|title=The biological basis of personality|location=Springfield, Ill.|publisher=Thomas|name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Eysenck | first1 = Hans | author-link = Hans Eysenck | year = 1991 | title = Dimensions of personality: 16: 5 or 3? Criteria for a taxonomic paradigm | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 12 | issue = 8| pages = 773–790 | doi=10.1016/0191-8869(91)90144-z|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
* [[Big Five personality traits]], ("the five-factor model"). Many psychologists currently believe that five factors are sufficient: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McCrae | first1 = R. R. | last2 = Costa | first2 = P. C. Jr. | year = 1987 | title = Validation of the five-factor model across instruments and observers | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 52 | issue = 1| pages = 81–90 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.52.1.81 | pmid=3820081| s2cid = 7893185 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref name="Costa1992">{{cite journal | last1 = Costa | first1 = P. T. | last2 = McCrae | first2 = R. R. | year = 1992 | title = Four ways five factors are basic | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 13 | issue = 6| pages = 653–665 | doi=10.1016/0191-8869(92)90236-i| s2cid = 86867568 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>

== Trait theory in cross-cultural use ==
Cultures are widely known and accepted as being different in varying degrees. This can make the study of personality difficult as meaning and the expression of traits may be different within cultural groups. Trait theory uses a hierarchy of traits in order to separate culture from the traits; it can be said the culture is ignored in order to focus on the individual traits and how they are connected to the individual.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Marsella|last2= Dubanoski|last3= Hamada|last4= Morse|first1=Anthony J.|first2= Joan|first3= Winter C. |first4=Heather|date=2000|title=The measurement of personality across cultures: Historical conceptual, and methodological issues and considerations|journal=American Behavioral Scientist|volume=44 |issue=1|pages=41–62|doi=10.1177/00027640021956080|s2cid=144260384|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Gordon Allport's trait theory not only served as a foundational approach within personality psychology, but also is continued to be viewed and discussed by other disciplines such as anthropology because of how he approached culture within trait theory.<ref name=":1" />

Trait theory tends to focus on the individual over the situation in which they are in.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mischel|first1=Walter|last2=Shoda|first2=Yuichi|date=1998-02-01|title=Reconciling processing dynamics and personality dispositions|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|volume=49|issue=1|pages=229–258|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.229|pmid=9496625|issn=0066-4308|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> This focus has relaxed within modern studies allowing for a consideration of the external factors outside of the self. As the focus becomes more relaxed (but still prominent as it is a main part of the theory) research expands.

==Comparing EPQ and Big Five==

===Testing methodology, and factors===
Both the EPQ and Big Five approaches extensively use self-report questionnaires. The factors are intended to be [[orthogonal]] (uncorrelated),<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Hans Eysenck|first=Hans|last=Eysenck|year=1990|chapter=Biological dimensions of personality|editor-first=L. A.|editor-last=Pervin|title=Handbook of personality: Theory and research|pages=244–76|location=New York|publisher=Guilford|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> though there are often small positive [[correlations]] between factors. The five factor model in particular has been criticized for losing the orthogonal structure between factors.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Block | first1 = J. | year = 1995 | title = A contrarian view of the five-factor approach to personality description | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 117 | issue = 2| pages = 187–215 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.117.2.187 | pmid=7724687|name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Draycott | first1 = S. G. | last2 = Kline | first2 = P. | year = 1995 | title = The Big Three or the Big Five—the EPQ-R vs the NEO-PI: a research note, replication and elaboration | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 18 | issue = 6| pages = 801–804 | doi=10.1016/0191-8869(95)00010-4|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref> British psychologist [[Hans Eysenck]] has argued that fewer factors are superior to a larger number of partly related ones.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Eysenck | first1 = H. J. | year = 1992 | title = A reply to Costa and McCrae. P or A and C: The role of theory | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 13 | issue = 8| pages = 867–868 | doi=10.1016/0191-8869(92)90003-8|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Although these two approaches are comparable because of the use of factor analysis to construct hierarchical taxonomies, they differ in the organization and number of factors.

Whatever the causes, [[psychoticism]] marks the two approaches apart, as the five factor model contains no such trait. Moreover, psychoticism, unlike any of the other factors in either approach, does not fit a [[normal distribution curve]]. Indeed, scores are rarely high, thus skewing a [[normal distribution]].<ref name="Personality traits"/> However, when they are high, there is considerable overlap with psychiatric conditions such as [[Psychopathy|antisocial]] and [[schizoid personality disorder]]s. Similarly, high scorers on [[neuroticism]] are more susceptible to [[sleep]] and [[psychosomatic]] disorders.<ref>{{cite book|author-link1=Hans Eysenck|first1=Hans|last1=Eysenck|first2=S. B. G.|last2=Eysenck|year=1991|title=The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised|location=Sevenoaks|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Five factor approaches can also predict future mental disorders.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Costa | first1 = P. T. | last2 = McCrae | first2 = R. R. | year = 1990 | title = Personality disorders and the five factor model of personality | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 4 | issue = 4| pages = 362–371 | doi=10.1521/pedi.1990.4.4.362|name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Lynam | first1 = D. R. | last2 = Caspi | first2 = A. | last3 = Moffitt | first3 = T. E. | last4 = Raine | first4 = A. | last5 = Loeber | first5 = R. | last6 = Stouthamer-Loeber | first6 = M. | year = 2005 | title = Adolescent psychopathy and the Big Five: Results from two samples | journal = Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology | volume = 33 | issue = 4| pages = 431–443 | doi=10.1007/s10648-005-5724-0| pmid = 16118990 | s2cid = 24240140|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>

=== Lower-order factors ===
[[File:Factors.svg|thumb|right|250px|Similarities between lower-order factors for psychoticism and the [[Facet (psychology)|facets]] of openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (from Matthews, Deary & Whiteman, 2003)]]

There are two higher-order factors that both taxonomies clearly share: [[extraversion]] and [[neuroticism]]. Both approaches broadly accept that extraversion is associated with [[sociability]] and positive [[dispositional affect|affect]], whereas [[neuroticism]] is associated with emotional instability and negative affect.<ref name="Personality traits">{{cite book|last1=Matthews|first1=G.|last2=Deary|first2=I. J.|last3=Whiteman|first3=M. C.|year=2003|title=Personality traits|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>

Many lower-order factors, or [[Facet (psychology)|facets]], are similar between the two taxonomies. For instance, both approaches contain factors for sociability/gregariousness, for activity levels, and for assertiveness within the higher order factor extraversion. However, there are differences too. First, the three-factor approach contains nine lower-order factors and the five-factor approach has six.<ref name="Personality traits"/>

Eysenck's [[psychoticism]] factor incorporates some of the [[orthogonal|polar opposites]] of the lower order factors of openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. A high scorer on tough-mindedness in [[psychoticism]] would score low on tender-mindedness in agreeableness. Most of the differences between the taxonomies stem from the three factor model's emphasis on fewer high-order factors.

===Causality===
Although both major trait models are descriptive, only the three-factor model offers a detailed causal explanation. Eysenck suggests that different personality traits are caused by the properties of the [[brain]], which themselves are the result of [[Genetics|genetic]] factors.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eysenck|first1=H. J.|last2=Eysenck|first2=M. W.|year=1985|title=Personality and individual differences: A natural science approach|location=New York|publisher=Plenum|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> In particular, the three-factor model identifies the [[reticular system]] and the [[limbic system]] in the brain as key components that mediate cortical arousal and emotional responses respectively. Eysenck advocates that extraverts have low levels of cortical arousal and introverts have high levels, leading extraverts to seek out more stimulation from socializing and being venturesome.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eysenck|first=H. J.|year=1967|title=The biological basis of personality|location=Springfield, Ill.|publisher=Thomas|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Moreover, Eysenck surmised that there would be an optimal level of arousal, after which inhibition would occur and that this would be different for each person.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Eysenck | first1 = H. J. | year = 1994 | title = Creativity and personality: Word association, origence, and Psychoticism | journal = Creativity Research Journal | volume = 7 | issue = 2| pages = 209–216 | doi=10.1080/10400419409534525|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>

In a similar vein, the three-factor approach theorizes that neuroticism is mediated by levels of arousal in the limbic system and that individual differences arise because of variable activation thresholds between people. Therefore, highly neurotic people when presented with minor stressors, will exceed this threshold, whereas people low in neuroticism will not exceed normal activation levels, even when presented with large stressors. By contrast, proponents of the five-factor approach assume a role of [[genetics]]<ref name="Costa1992"/> and environment<ref name="Jeronimus2014"/> but offer no explicit causal explanation.

Given this emphasis on [[biology]] in the three-factor approach, it would be expected that the third trait, psychoticism, would have a similar explanation. However, the causal properties of this state are not well defined. Eysenck has suggested that psychoticism is related to [[testosterone]] levels and is an inverse function of the [[Serotonin|serotonergic system]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Eysenck | first1 = H. J. | year = 1992 | title = The definition and measurement of psychoticism | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 13 | issue = 7| pages = 757–785 | doi=10.1016/0191-8869(92)90050-y|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> but he later revised this, linking it instead to the [[dopaminergic system]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Eysenck | first1 = H. J. | year = 1997 | title = Personality and experimental psychology: The unification of psychology and the possibility of a paradigm | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 73 | issue = 6| pages = 1224–1237 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1224|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>

==List of personality traits==
After examining thousands of personality measures and numerous personality trait frameworks, researchers have created "super-frameworks" that aim to encapsulate all personality traits into a single model (e.g., Pan-Hierarchical Five Factor Model).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Stanek |first1=Kevin |url=https://umnlibraries.manifoldapp.org/projects/of-anchors-and-sails |title=Of Anchors & Sails: Personality-Ability Trait Constellations |last2=Ones |first2=Deniz |date=2023-11-20 |publisher=University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing |s2cid-access=free |doi-access=free |isbn=978-1-946135-98-8 |doi=10.24926/9781946135988|s2cid=265335858 }}</ref> These models also sometimes identify measures that can be used to measure traits/constructs in the models.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Stanek |first1=Kevin C. |title=Taxonomies and Compendia of Cognitive Ability and Personality Constructs and Measures Relevant to Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology |date=2018 |work=The SAGE Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology: Personnel Psychology and Employee Performance |pages=366–407 |url=http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-handbook-of-industrial-work-and-org-psychology-vol1/i3345.xml |access-date=2024-02-24 |place=Oliver's Yard, City Road London |publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd |doi=10.4135/9781473914940.n14 |isbn=978-1-4462-0721-5 |last2=Ones |first2=Deniz S.|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Other examples of personality traits
|-
| [[Openness to experience]] || Composed of two related but separable traits, Openness to Experience and Intellect. Behavioral aspects include having wide interests, and being imaginative and insightful, correlated with activity in the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]]. Considered primarily a cognitive trait.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = DeYoung | first1 = C. G. | last2 = Peterson | first2 = J. B. | last3 = Higgins | first3 = D. M. | date = Aug 2005 | title = Sources of openness/intellect: cognitive and neuropsychological correlates of the fifth factor of personality | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 73 | issue = 4| pages = 825–58 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00330.x | pmid = 15958136 |name-list-style=vanc }}</ref>
|-
| [[Conscientiousness]] || Scrupulous, meticulous, principled behavior guided or conforming to one's own conscience. Associated with the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = MacLaren | first1 = V. V. | last2 = Best | first2 = L. A. | date = Aug 2009 | title = Female students' disordered eating and the big five personality facets | journal = Eating Behaviors | volume = 10 | issue = 3| pages = 192–5 | pmid = 19665103 | doi=10.1016/j.eatbeh.2009.04.001|name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Heaven | first1 = P. C. | last2 = Mulligan | first2 = K. | last3 = Merrilees | first3 = R. | last4 = Woods | first4 = T. | last5 = Fairooz | first5 = Y. | date = Sep 2001 | title = Neuroticism and conscientiousness as predictors of emotional, external, and restrained eating behaviors | journal = International Journal of Eating Disorders | volume = 30 | issue = 2| pages = 161–6 | pmid = 11449449 | doi=10.1002/eat.1068|name-list-style=vanc}}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Casper | first1 = R. C. | last2 = Hedeker | first2 = D. | last3 = McClough | first3 = J. F. | date = Sep 1992 | title = Personality dimensions in eating disorders and their relevance for subtyping | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 31 | issue = 5| pages = 830–40 | pmid = 1400113 | doi=10.1097/00004583-199209000-00008|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[Extroversion]] || Gregarious, outgoing, sociable, projecting one's personality outward. The opposite of extroversion is [[introversion]]. Extroversion has shown to share certain genetic markers with substance abuse. Extroversion is associated with various regions of the prefrontal cortex and the [[amygdala]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Luo | first1 = X. | last2 = Kranzler | first2 = H. R. | last3 = Zuo | first3 = L. | last4 = Wang | first4 = S. | last5 = Gelernter | first5 = J. | year = 2007 | title = Personality Traits of Agreeableness and Extroversion are Associated with ADH4 Variation | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 61 | issue = 5| pages = 599–608 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.05.017 | pmid = 17069770 | pmc=1853245|name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Wright | first1 = C. I. |display-authors=etal | date = Dec 2006 | title = Neuroanatomical correlates of extroversion and neuroticism | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 16 | issue = 12| pages = 1809–19 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhj118 | pmid = 16421327 | doi-access = free|name-list-style=vanc }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Mendez | first1 = M. F. | last2 = Chen | first2 = A. K. | last3 = Shapira | first3 = J. S. | last4 = Lu | first4 = P. H. | last5 = Miller | first5 = B. L. | year = 2006 | title = Acquired extroversion associated with bitemporal variant of frontotemporal dementia | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1236218| journal = Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences | volume = 18 | issue = 1| pages = 100–7 | doi = 10.1176/appi.neuropsych.18.1.100 | pmid = 16525077 |name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[Agreeableness]] || Refers to a compliant, trusting, empathic, sympathetic, friendly and cooperative nature.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Rankin | first1 = K.P. |display-authors=etal | year = 2004 | title = Right and left medial orbitofrontal volumes show an opposite relationship to agreeableness in FTD | journal = Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders | volume = 17 | issue = 4| pages = 328–32 | doi = 10.1159/000077165 | pmid = 15178947 | pmc=2362501|name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Graziano | first1 = W. G. | last2 = Tobin | first2 = R. M. |display-authors=etal | date = Jun 1993 | title =  Genetic and environmental effects on openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness: an adoption/twin study| journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 61 | issue = 2| pages = 159–79 | pmid = 8345444 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1993.tb01030.x|name-list-style=vanc }}
|3={{cite journal | pmid = 12322857 | volume=70 | issue=5 | title=Agreeableness: dimension of personality or social desirability artifact? | date=October 2002 | journal=Journal of Personality | pages=695–727 | last1 = Graziano | first1 = W.G.| last2 = Tobin | first2 = R.M.| doi=10.1111/1467-6494.05021|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[Neuroticism]] || Identifies people who are prone to psychological distress. Individuals who are high in neuroticism tend to be anxious, depressed, self-conscious, impulsive, vulnerable and display angry hostility. "Neuroticism is the major factor of personality pathology."<ref name="EysenckEysenck">{{cite journal | last1=Eysenck | first1=Sybil B. G. | last2=Eysenck | first2=H. J.|name-list-style=vanc | title=Scores on Three Personality Variables as a Function of Age, Sex and Social Class | journal=British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology | publisher=Wiley | volume=8 | issue=1 | year=1969 | issn=0007-1293 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8260.1969.tb00588.x | pages=69–76| pmid=5781476 }}</ref> Neuroticism has been linked to serotonin transporter (5-HTT) binding sites in the [[thalamus]]: as well as activity in the [[insular cortex]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = J. L. |display-authors=etal | date = Jan 2006 | title = Neuroticism and introversion: a risky combination for disordered eating among a non-clinical sample of undergraduate women | journal = Eating Behaviors | volume = 7 | issue = 1| pages = 69–78 | doi = 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2005.07.003 | pmid = 16360625 |name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Takano | first1 = A. |display-authors=etal | date = Sep 2007 | title = Relationship between neuroticism personality trait and serotonin transporter binding | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 62 | issue = 6| pages = 588–92 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.11.007 | pmid = 17336939 | s2cid = 41664835|name-list-style=vanc }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Deckersbach | first1 = T. |display-authors=etal | year = 2006 | title = Regional cerebral brain metabolism correlates of neuroticism and extraversion | journal = Depression and Anxiety | volume = 23 | issue = 3| pages = 133–8 | doi = 10.1002/da.20152 | pmid = 16470804 | s2cid = 12798682 | doi-access = free|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref> Neuroticism also predicts the occurrence of more negative life experiences.<ref name="Jeronimus2014">{{cite journal|last1=Jeronimus|first1= B. F.|last2= Riese|first2= H.|last3= Sanderman|first3= R.|last4= Ormel|first4= J.|year=2014|title= Mutual Reinforcement Between Neuroticism and Life Experiences: A Five-Wave, 16-Year Study to Test Reciprocal Causation|journal= Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=107|issue=4|pages=751–64|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264627671 | doi = 10.1037/a0037009|pmid=25111305|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>
|-
| [[Honesty-humility factor of the HEXACO model of personality|Honesty-humility]] || Tendency towards sincerity, modesty, fairness, and greed avoidance. Those who score high on this trait feel little desire to manipulate others or to break the rules for personal gain.
|-
| [[Self-esteem]] || A "favorable or unfavorable attitude toward oneself".<ref>{{cite book|last=Rosenberg|first=Morris|name-list-style=vanc|title=Society and the Adolescent Self-Image|year=1968|orig-year=1965|page=18|location=Princeton, N.J.|publisher=Princeton University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/societyadolescen0000rose_m3e5|isbn=0691028052}}</ref> An individual's sense of his or her value or worth, or the extent to which a person values, approves of, appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself".<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last1=Blascovich|first1=J.|last2=Tomaka|first2=J.|name-list-style=vanc|year=1991|chapter=Measures of self-esteem|editor-first1=J. P.|editor-last1=Robinson|editor-first2=P. R.|editor-last2=Shaver|editor-first3=L. S.|editor-last3=Wrightsman|title=Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes|volume=I|location=San Diego, Calif.|publisher=Academic Press}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Button | first1 = E. J. | date = Jan 1997 | title = Self-esteem, eating problems and psychological wellbeing in a cohort of school age 15–16: question and interview | journal = Int J Eat Disord | volume = 21 | issue = 1| pages = 39–41 | pmid = 8986516 | doi = 10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199701)21:1<39::aid-eat5>3.0.co;2-4|name-list-style=vanc }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Strober | first1 = M. | year = 1983| title = Personality factors in anorexia nervosa | journal = Pediatrician | volume = 12 | issue = 2–3| pages = 134–8 | pmid = 6400211|name-list-style=vanc }}
|4={{cite journal | last1 = Eiber | first1 = R. |display-authors=etal | year = 2003 | title = Self-esteem: a comparison study between eating disorders and social phobia | journal = Encephale | volume = 29 | issue = 1| pages = 35–41 | pmid = 12640325|name-list-style=vanc }}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[Harm avoidance]] || A tendency towards shyness, being fearful and uncertain, tendency to worry. Neonatal complications such as preterm birth have been shown to affect harm avoidance. People affected by eating disorders exhibit high levels of harm avoidance.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bulik | first1 = C. M. |display-authors=etal | year = 1997 | title = Eating disorders and antecedent anxiety disorders: a controlled study | journal = Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica | volume = 96 | issue = 2| pages = 101–107 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1997.tb09913.x | pmid = 9272193 | s2cid = 21378266 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> The volume of the left amygdala in girls was correlated to levels of HA, in separate studies HA was correlated with reduced grey matter volume in the orbitofrontal, occipital and parietal regions.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Favaro | first1 = A. | last2 = Tenconi | first2 = E. | last3 = Santonastaso | first3 = P. | date = Apr 2008 | title = The relationship between obstetric complications and temperament in eating disorders: a mediation hypothesis | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 70 | issue = 3| pages = 372–7 | doi = 10.1097/PSY.0b013e318164604e | pmid = 18256341 | s2cid = 347034|name-list-style=vanc }}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Iidaka | first1 = T. |display-authors=etal | year = 2006 | title = Volume of left amygdala subregion predicted temperamental trait of harm avoidance in female young subjects. A voxel-based morphometry study | journal = Brain Research | volume = 1125 | issue = 1| pages = 85–93 | doi = 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.09.015 | pmid = 17113049 | s2cid = 16850998|name-list-style=vanc }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Peterson | first1 = C. B. | date = Jan–Feb 2010 | title = Personality dimensions in bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and obesity | journal = Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume = 51 | issue = 1| pages = 31–6 | doi = 10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.03.003 | pmid = 19932823 | pmc=2838502|name-list-style=vanc}}
|4={{cite journal | last1 = Gardini | first1 = S. | last2 = Cloninger | first2 = C. R. | last3 = Venneri | first3 = A. | date = Jun 2009 | title = Individual differences in personality traits reflect structural variance in specific brain regions | journal = Brain Research Bulletin | volume = 79 | issue = 5| pages = 265–70 | doi = 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2009.03.005 | pmid = 19480986 | s2cid = 25490518 |name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[Novelty seeking]] || Impulsive, exploratory, fickle, excitable, quick-tempered, and extravagant. Associated with addictive behavior.
|-
| [[Highly sensitive person|Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS)]] || The defining trait of [[highly sensitive person]]s, characterized by the increased depth of processing of sensory input that underlies HSPs' greater proclivity to overstimulation, emotional reactivity and empathy, and sensitivity to stimuli.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Aron | first1 = Elaine | last2 = Aron | first2 = Arthur | year = 1997 | title = Sensory-Processing Sensitivity and its Relation to Introversion and Emotionality | url = http://www.hsperson.com/pdf/JPSP_Aron_and_Aron_97_Sensitivity_vs_I_and_N.pdf | journal = [[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] | volume = 73 | issue = 2| pages = 345–368 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.73.2.345| pmid = 9248053|name-list-style=vanc }}
|2={{cite journal | last1=Aron | first1=E. | last2=Aron | first2=A. | last3=Jagiellowicz | first3=J. | year=2012 | title=Sensory processing sensitivity: A review in the light of the evolution of biological responsivity | journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume=16 | issue=3 | pages=262–282 | doi=10.1177/1088868311434213 | pmid=22291044 | s2cid=2542035 |url=http://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Pers-Soc-Psychol-Rev-2012-Aron-1088868311434213.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513150731/http://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Pers-Soc-Psychol-Rev-2012-Aron-1088868311434213.pdf |archive-date=May 13, 2015 |url-status=live|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[perfectionism (psychology)|Perfectionism]] || "I don't think needing to be perfect is in any way adaptive." (Paul Hewitt, PhD)<ref>{{cite journal|first=Etienne|last=Benson|title=The many faces of perfectionism|date=November 2003|volume=34|number=10|journal=Monitor on Psychology|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>

Socially prescribed perfectionism&nbsp;– "believing that others will value you only if you are perfect."

Self-oriented perfectionism&nbsp;– "an internally motivated desire to be perfect."

Perfectionism is one of the traits associated with obsessional behavior and like obsessionality is also believed to be regulated by the [[basal ganglia]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Halmi | first1 = K. A. |display-authors=etal | date = Nov 2000 | title = Perfectionism in anorexia nervosa: variation by clinical subtype, obsessionality, and pathological eating behavior | journal = American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 157 | issue = 11| pages = 1799–805 | pmid = 11058477 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.157.11.1799|name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Ruggiero | first1 = G. M. |display-authors=etal | date = Sep 2003 | title = Stress situation reveals an association between perfectionism and drive for thinness | journal = International Journal of Eating Disorders | volume = 34 | issue = 2| pages = 220–6 | doi = 10.1002/eat.10191 | pmid = 12898558|name-list-style=vanc }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Hewitt | first1 = P. L. |display-authors=etal | year = 2008 | title = The impact of perfectionistic self-presentation on the cognitive, affective, and physiological experience of a clinical interview | journal = Psychiatry | volume = 71 | issue = 2| pages = 93–122 | doi = 10.1521/psyc.2008.71.2.93 | pmid = 18573033 | s2cid = 1364808|name-list-style=vanc }}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[Alexithymia]] || The inability to express emotions. "To have no words for one's inner experience".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Muller|first=Rene J.|name-list-style=vanc|title=When a patient has no story to tell: Alexithymia|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=17|number=7|year=2000|pages=1–6}}</ref> In studies done with stroke patients, alexithymia was found to be more prevalent in those who developed lesions in the right hemisphere following a [[cerebral infarct]]ion. There is a positive association with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), childhood abuse and neglect and alexithymia. Utilizing [[psychometric]] testing and [[fMRI]], studies showed positive response in the [[insular cortex|insula]], [[posterior cingulate cortex]] (PCC), and [[thalamus]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Frewen | first1 = P. A. | last2 = Pain | first2 = C. | last3 = Dozois | first3 = D. J. | last4 = Lanius | first4 = R. A. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Alexithymia in PTSD: psychometric and FMRI studies | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1071 | issue = 1 | pages = 397–400 | pmid = 16891585 | doi=10.1196/annals.1364.029| bibcode = 2006NYASA1071..397F | s2cid = 15031115 |name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal | pmid = 11192799 | volume=26 | issue=5 | title=[Alexithymia and depression in eating disorders] | year=2000 | journal=Encephale | pages=1–6 | last1 = Guilbaud | first1 = O. | last2 = Corcos | first2 = M. | last3 = Chambry | first3 = J. | last4 = Paterniti | first4 = S. | last5 = Loas | first5 = G. | last6 = Jeammet | first6 = P.|name-list-style=vanc}}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = G. J. |display-authors=etal | date = Aug 1997 | title = Alexithymia in patients with eating disorders: an investigation using a new projective technique | journal = Perceptual and Motor Skills | volume = 85 | issue = 1| pages = 247–56 | pmid = 9293583 | doi=10.2466/pms.1997.85.1.247| s2cid = 29307907|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[rigidity (psychology)|Rigidity]] || Inflexibility, difficulty making transitions, adherence to set patterns. Mental rigidity arises out of a deficit of the [[executive functions]]. Originally termed [[frontal lobe]] syndrome it is also referred to as [[dysexecutive syndrome]] and usually occurs as a result of damage to the [[frontal lobe]]. This may be due to physical damage, disease (such as [[Huntington's disease]]) or a [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxic]] or anoxic insult.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Peskine | first1 = A. | last2 = Picq | first2 = C. | last3 = Pradat-Diehl | first3 = P. | date = Dec 2004 | title = Cerebral anoxia and disability | journal = Brain Injury | volume = 18 | issue = 12| pages = 1243–54 | pmid = 15666568 | doi=10.1080/02699050410001719899| s2cid = 22416252 }}<
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Ho | first1 = Aileen K. | last2 = Robbins | first2 = Anna O. G. | last3=Barker | first3=Roger A.| date = Mar 2006 | title = Huntington's disease patients have selective problems with insight | journal = Movement Disorders | volume = 21 | issue = 3| pages = 385–9 | doi = 10.1002/mds.20739 | pmid = 16211608 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.511.6208 | s2cid = 12076025|name-list-style=vanc }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Tchanturia | first1 = K. |display-authors=etal | date = Sep 2001 | title = Perceptual illusions in eating disorders: rigid and fluctuating styles | journal = Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry | volume = 32 | issue = 3| pages = 107–15 | pmid = 11934124 | doi=10.1016/s0005-7916(01)00025-8|name-list-style=vanc}}
|4={{cite journal | last1 = Cserjési | first1 = R. | date = Jun 2009 | title = Affect, cognition, awareness and behavior in eating disorders. Comparison between obesity and anorexia nervosa | journal = Orvosi Hetilap | volume = 150 | issue = 24| pages = 1135–43 | doi = 10.1556/OH.2009.28590 | pmid = 19482720|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[Impulsivity]] || Risk taking, lack of planning, and making up one's mind quickly.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Eysenck | first1 = S. B. | last2 = Eysenck | first2 = H. J. | date = Feb 1977 | title = The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description | journal = British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology | volume = 16 | issue = 1| pages = 57–68 | pmid = 843784 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8260.1977.tb01003.x|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> A component of disinhibition. Abnormal patterns of impulsivity have been linked to lesions in the right [[inferior frontal gyrus]] and in studies done by [[Antonio Damasio]] author of ''[[Descartes' Error]]'', damage to the [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]] has been shown to cause a defect in real-life decision making in individuals with otherwise normal [[intellect]]. Those who sustain this type of damage are oblivious to the future consequences of their actions and live in the here and now.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Bechara | first1 = A. | last2 = Damasio | first2 = A. R. | last3 = Damasio | first3 = H. | last4 = Anderson | first4 = S. W. | date = Apr–Jun 1994 | title = Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex | journal = Cognition | volume = 50 | issue = 1–3| pages = 7–15 | pmid = 8039375 | doi=10.1016/0010-0277(94)90018-3| s2cid = 204981454|name-list-style=vanc }}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Eysenck | first1 = S. B. | last2 = Eysenck | first2 = H. J. | date = Feb 1977 | title = The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description | journal = British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology | volume = 16 | issue = 1| pages = 57–68 | pmid = 843784 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8260.1977.tb01003.x|name-list-style=vanc}}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Welch | first1 = S. L. | last2 = Fairburn | first2 = C. G. | date = Oct 1996 | title = Impulsivity or comorbidity in bulimia nervosa. A controlled study of deliberate self-harm and alcohol and drug misuse in a community sample | journal = British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 169 | issue = 4| pages = 451–8 | pmid = 8894196 | doi=10.1192/bjp.169.4.451| s2cid = 32042767|name-list-style=vanc }}
|4={{cite journal | date = Jan 2007 | title = Trauma and multi-impulsivity in the eating disorders | journal = Eating Behaviors | volume = 8 | issue = 1| pages = 23–30 | doi = 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.08.009 | pmid = 17174848  | last1 = Corstorphine | first1 = E. | last2 = Waller | first2 = G. | last3 = Lawson | first3 = R. | last4 = Ganis | first4 = C.|name-list-style=vanc}}
|5={{cite journal | pmid = 8778124 | volume=51 | issue=6 | title=Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale | date=November 1995 | journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology | pages=768–74 | last1 = Patton | first1 = J. H. | last2 = Stanford | first2 = M. S. | last3 = Barratt | first3 = E. S. | doi=10.1002/1097-4679(199511)51:6<768::aid-jclp2270510607>3.0.co;2-1|name-list-style=vanc}}
|6={{cite journal | last1 = Chamberlain | first1 = S. R. | last2 = Sahakian | first2 = B. J. | date = May 2007 | title = The neuropsychiatry of impulsivity | journal = Current Opinion in Psychiatry | volume = 20 | issue = 3| pages = 255–61 | doi = 10.1097/YCO.0b013e3280ba4989 | pmid = 17415079 | s2cid = 22198972|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[Disinhibition]] || Behavioral disinhibition is an inability or unwillingness to constrain impulses, it is a key component of executive functioning. Researchers have emphasized poor behavioral inhibition as the central impairment of ADHD. It may be symptomatic of [[orbitofrontal cortex|orbitofrontal lobe]] syndrome, a subtype of [[dysexecutive syndrome|frontal lobe syndrome]] which may be an acquired disorder as a result of [[complications of traumatic brain injury|traumatic brain injury]], [[Intrauterine hypoxia|hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy]] (HIE), anoxic encephalopathy, degenerative diseases such as [[Parkinson's]], bacterial or viral infections such as [[Lyme disease]] and [[neurosyphilis]]. Disinhibition has been consistently associated with substance abuse disorders, obesity, higher BMI, excessive eating, an increased rate of eating, and perceived hunger.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = C. F. | date = Mar 1998 | title = Association of dietary restraint and disinhibition with eating behavior, body mass, and hunger | journal = Eating and Weight Disorders | volume = 3 | issue = 1| pages = 7–15 | pmid = 11234257 | doi=10.1007/bf03354907| s2cid = 40567168|name-list-style=vanc }}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Bryant | first1 = E. J. | last2 = King | first2 = N. A. | last3 = Blundell | first3 = J. E. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Disinhibition: its effects on appetite and weight regulation | journal = Obesity Reviews | volume = 9 | issue = 5| pages = 409–19 | pmid = 18179615 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00426.x| hdl = 10454/5739 | s2cid = 2710954 | hdl-access = free|name-list-style=vanc }}
|3={{cite journal | pmid = 17176176 | doi=10.1037/0893-164X.20.4.415 | volume=20 | issue=4 | title=Personality and substance dependence symptoms: modeling substance-specific traits | date=December 2006 | journal=Psychology of Addictive Behaviors | pages=415–24 | last1 = Grekin | first1 = E. R. | last2 = Sher | first2 = K. J. | last3 = Wood | first3 = P. K.|name-list-style=vanc}}
|4={{cite journal | pmid = 11054778 | volume=96 | issue=5 | title=Genetic and environmental influences on behavioral disinhibition | date=October 2000 | journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics | pages=684–95 | last1 = Young | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Stallings | first2 = M. C. | last3 = Corley | first3 = R. P. | last4 = Krauter | first4 = K. S. | last5 = Hewitt | first5 = J. K. | doi=10.1002/1096-8628(20001009)96:5<684::aid-ajmg16>3.0.co;2-g| citeseerx=10.1.1.474.4776 | url = http://128.138.139.9/cadd/young_2000.pdf |name-list-style=vanc}}
|5={{cite journal | last1 = Young | first1 = S. E. |display-authors=etal | date = Feb 2009 | title = Behavioral disinhibition: liability for externalizing spectrum disorders and its genetic and environmental relation to response inhibition across adolescence | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 118 | issue = 1| pages = 117–30 | pmid = 19222319 | doi=10.1037/a0014657 | pmc=2775710|name-list-style=vanc}}
|6={{cite journal | last1 = Emond | first1 = V. | last2 = Joyal | first2 = C. | last3 = Poissant | first3 = H. | date = Apr 2009 | title = Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | journal = Encephale | volume = 35 | issue = 2| pages = 107–14 | pmid = 19393378 | doi=10.1016/j.encep.2008.01.005|name-list-style=vanc}}
|7={{cite journal | last1 = Spiegel | first1 = D. R. | last2 = Qureshi | first2 = N. | year = 2010| title = The successful treatment of disinhibition due to a possible case of non-human immunodeficiency virus neurosyphilis: a proposed pathophysiological explanation of the symptoms and treatment | journal = General Hospital Psychiatry| volume =  32| issue = 2| pages =  221–224| doi = 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.01.002 | pmid = 20303000|name-list-style=vanc }}
|8={{cite journal | last1 = Aarsland | first1 = D. | last2 = Litvan | first2 = I. | last3 = Larsen | first3 = J. P. | year = 2001 | title = Neuropsychiatric symptoms of patients with progressive supranuclear palsy and Parkinson's disease | journal = Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences | volume = 13 | issue = 1| pages = 42–9 | pmid = 11207328 | doi=10.1176/appi.neuropsych.13.1.42|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
|-
| [[Psychoticism]] ||Psychoticism is a personality pattern typified by aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility, one of four traits in [[Hans Eysenck]]'s model of personality. High levels of this trait were believed by Eysenck to be linked to increased vulnerability to psychosis such as schizophrenia. He also believed that blood relatives of psychotics would show high levels of this trait, suggesting a genetic basis to the trait.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last1=Eysenck|first1= H. J|last2=Eysenck|first2= S. B. G|title=Psychoticism as a Dimension of Personality|year=1977|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|location=London|isbn=978-0-340-20919-6|name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal|last1=Lester|first1=David|title=A Neurotransmitter Basis for Eysnenck's Theory of Personality|journal=Psychological Reports|volume=64|issue=1|year=1989|pages=189–190|issn=0033-2941|doi=10.2466/pr0.1989.64.1.189|pmid=2564688|s2cid=28744688|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>

|-
| [[Intrusive thoughts|Obsessionality]] || Persistent, often unwelcome, and frequently disturbing ideas, thoughts, images or emotions, [[rumination (psychology)|rumination]], often inducing an anxious state. Obsessionality may result as a dysfunction of the [[basal ganglia]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Zubieta | first1 = J. K. | year = 1995 | title = Obsessionality in eating-disorder patients: relationship to clinical presentation and two-year outcome | journal = Journal of Psychiatric Research | volume = 29 | issue = 4| pages = 333–42 | pmid = 8847659 | doi=10.1016/0022-3956(95)00020-6|name-list-style=vanc}}
|2={{cite journal | pmid = 9829027 | title=Cognitive-behavioural approach to understanding obsessional thinking | year=1998 | journal=British Journal of Psychiatry Supplement | volume=173 | pages=53–63 | last1 = Salkovskis | author-link =  Paul Salkovskis | first1 = P. M. | last2 = Forrester | first2 = E. | last3 = Richards | first3 = C. | issue=35| doi=10.1192/S0007125000297900 | s2cid=32544419|name-list-style=vanc }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Corcoran | first1 = K. M. | last2 = Woody | first2 = S. R. | date = Jan 2008 | title = Appraisals of obsessional thoughts in normal samples | journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy | volume = 46 | issue = 1| pages = 71–83 | doi = 10.1016/j.brat.2007.10.007 | pmid = 18093572|name-list-style=vanc}}
}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
* {{annotated link|[[16PF Questionnaire|16 Personality Factors]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Alternative five model of personality]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Big Five personality traits]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Cultural schema theory]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[HEXACO model of personality structure]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory|NEO-PI]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Personality psychology]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Social investment theory]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Szondi test]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Trait activation theory]]}}

==References==
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|wikititle=trait theory}}
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Virtues}}
{{Big Five}}

[[Category:Personality theories]]
[[Category:Personality traits]]
[[Category:Psychological concepts]]
[[Category:Psychology]]