Editing Transatlantic crossing

{{Short description|Passages of passengers and cargo across the Atlantic Ocean}}
{{For|other uses of the term Transatlantic|Transatlantic (disambiguation){{!}}Transatlantic}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
'''Transatlantic crossings''' are passages of passengers and cargo across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] between [[Europe]] or [[Africa]] and the [[Americas]]. The majority of passenger traffic is across the North Atlantic between [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]].  Centuries after the dwindling of sporadic [[Viking]] trade with [[Markland]], a regular and lasting transatlantic [[trade route]] was established in 1566 with the Spanish [[Spanish treasure fleet|West Indies fleets]], following the [[voyages of Christopher Columbus]].

== By sea ==
{{Main|List of crossings of the Atlantic Ocean}}
Prior to the 19th century, transatlantic crossings were undertaken in [[sailing ship]]s, and the journeys were time-consuming and often perilous. The first trade route across the Atlantic was inaugurated by Spain a few decades after the European [[Discovery of the Americas]], with the establishment of the [[Spanish treasure fleet|West Indies fleets]] in 1566, a convoy system that regularly linked its territories in the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|Americas]] with Spain for over two centuries. [[Portugal]] created a similar maritime route between its ports in [[Colonial Brazil|Brazil]] and the Portuguese mainland. Other colonial powers followed, such as [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], [[France]] and the [[Netherlands]], as they colonized the [[New World]].

''[[Guinness Book of World Records]]'' has awarded world records to vessels of various classes such as luxury liners, sail boats, and rowing boats.  Because of the shape of the continents and the assistance (or resistance) of ocean currents, the Eastbound crossing is quicker than the Westbound crossing.

=== Passenger liners ===

[[File:Stamp Bremen (1929).jpg|thumb|left|[[SS Bremen (1928)|SS ''Bremen'']] depicted on a German postage stamp]]

Transatlantic passenger crossings became faster, safer, and more reliable with the advent of [[steamship]]s in the 19th century. The wooden-hulled, paddle-wheel {{SS|Great Western}} built in 1838 is recognized as the first purpose-built transatlantic steamship, on a scheduled run back and forth from Bristol to New York City.  The design by British civil engineer [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]] was a breakthrough in its size, unprecedented passenger capacity, and for Brunel leveraging the [[fuel efficiency]] of a larger ship. It became the prototype for a generation of similar ships.<ref name=rolt>Rolt, L.T.C., "Victorian Engineering", 1970, Allen Lane The Penguin Press, {{ISBN|0-7139-0104-7}}</ref>

The [[British & North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company]] started its year-round Liverpool-Halifax-Boston service in 1840, using four new {{sclass|Britannia|steamship}}s and a mail contract from the British government. The company later evolved into the [[Cunard Line]], with Cunard's dominance drawing the attention of the U.S. government, which had its own mail contract to offer to an American firm willing to compete.  In 1850, the contract was awarded to the New York and Liverpool United States Steamship Company, which became the [[Collins Line]], and which answered Cunard with its own four ships, which were newer, larger, faster, and more luxurious.

Competition developed among the industrial powers of the time—the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States—to competitively build grand [[ocean liner]]s as symbols of national technical skill and expressions of power, not just transport businesses. The competition was for speed. An award called the [[Blue Riband]] has been tracked since 1838, for the fastest average speed of a steamship in regular service across the Atlantic. This record became so critical to international prestige that the {{RMS|Mauretania|1906|6}} was commissioned by the British government specifically to take the Blue Riband back from the Germans and their [[SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse|SS ''Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse'']], which it did in 1907. The government also required it be convertible into a troop carrier if needed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Exhibition "On the Water" - Ocean Crossings |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/onthewater/exhibition/5_3.html |website=Smithsonian Institution |date=9 February 2021 |access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref> In 1935, shipping magnate [[Harold Hales]] formalized the prize by commissioning and donating the four-foot, solid silver Hales Trophy.

Examples of other famous transatlantic liners are {{RMS|Lusitania}}, {{RMS|Olympic}}, {{RMS|Titanic}}, {{SS|Île de France}},{{RMS|Aquitania}}, {{SS|Rex}}, {{SS|Normandie}}, {{RMS|Queen Mary}}, {{SS|America|1939|6}}, {{RMS|Queen Elizabeth}}, {{SS|France|1961|6}}, ''[[Queen Elizabeth 2]]'', {{RMS|Queen Mary 2}}, and the {{SS|United States}}.  The ''United States'' is the current holder of the Hales Trophy. In July 1952, that ship made the crossing in 3 days, 10 hours, 40 minutes. Cunard Line's RMS Queen Mary 2 is the only ship currently making regular transatlantic crossings throughout the year, usually between Southampton and New York. For this reason it has been designed as a proper ocean liner, not as a cruise ship.

During World War II, the transatlantic crossing was very important for the United Kingdom as much of Europe had been taken over by Germany and its allies preventing trade and supplies; the struggle is known as the [[Battle of the Atlantic]].

===Smallest powerboat to cross the Atlantic===
In 2009, two brothers, Ralph and Robert Brown, crossed the Atlantic Ocean in a {{cvt|21|ft|adj=on}} flats boat – a special boat designed to operate in extremely shallow water. This flats boat was designed and built by Ralph Brown. The voyage was called the "I Am Second Wounded Hero Voyage" in honor of the men who were killed in [[Operation Eagle Claw]]; Ralph Brown had been in the USMC at the time of the Operation and was told he was going to participate in the mission. Though he ultimately did not go, other servicemen who did perished in the failed military operation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Smallest Power Boat to Cross The Atlantic: Florida brothers set world record |id=Includes video |url=http://www.worldrecordacademy.com/travel/smallest_power_boat_to_cross_The_Atlantic_Florida_brothers_set_world_record_112422.html#:~:text=TAMPA%2C%20FL%2C%20USA%20%2D%2D%20Two,downtown%20London%20%2D%20setting%20the%20new |website=www.worldrecordacademy.com |access-date=August 13, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://recordsetter.com/world-record/smallest-powerboat-cross-the-atlantic-ocean/19820|title=Smallest Powerboat to Cross the Atlantic Ocean}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.saltwatersportsman.com/news/two-brothers-cross-atlantic-ocean-21-boat/|title = Two brothers cross the Atlantic Ocean in a 21' boat|date = 21 October 2009}}</ref>

====Inflatable boat====
In 1952, [[Alain Bombard]] crossed the Atlantic from East to West, journeying 113 days in a [[Zodiac Marine & Pool|Zodiac]], {{lang|fr|L'Hérétique}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bombard|first=Alain|title=The Voyage of the Heretique|date=1953|publisher=Simon and Schuster}}</ref>

====Rafts====
In 1956, Henri Beaudout crossed the Atlantic from West to East, from [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]] to [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]], on a raft of wood and rope, {{lang|fr|[[L'Égaré II]]}}, in 88 days.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wadden|first=Marie|title=Three Canadians, two kittens, one raft: A little-known journey across the Atlantic|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/three-canadians-two-kittens-one-raft-a-little-known-journey-across-the-atlantic/article4462515/|access-date=19 May 2014|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|date=3 August 2012}}</ref>

In 1970, [[Thor Heyerdahl]] crossed the Atlantic in ''Ra II'', a [[papyrus]] raft built to an [[Ancient Egyptian]] design. This voyage followed an unsuccessful attempt the previous year in his first raft, ''Ra I''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Heyerdahl |first=Thor |title=The Ra Expeditions |date=1972 |isbn=0-14-003462-5}}</ref>

In 1988, the [[junk raft]], ''[[Son of Town Hall]]'', crossed the North Atlantic Ocean.<ref>
{{Cite web |title = Son of Town Hall, First Raft made of Scrap to Cross the North Atlantic Ocean |publisher = The Floating Neutrinos |date = 30 May 2006 |url =  http://www.floatingneutrinos.com/son%20of%20town%20hall/chronology.htm |access-date = 30 September 2010}}</ref>

In 2011, Anthony Smith and the Antiki crossed the Atlantic.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weil |first1=Martin |title=Anthony Smith, adventurer who crossed the Atlantic by raft in his 80s, dies at 88 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/anthony-smith-adventurer-who-crossed-the-atlantic-by-raft-in-his-80s-dies-at-88/2014/07/26/64f8335a-1470-11e4-9285-4243a40ddc97_story.html |access-date=8 September 2020 |newspaper=Washington Post |date=26 July 2014}}</ref>

====By oar====
{{main|Ocean rowing}}
On July 10, 1980, [[Gérard d'Aboville]] became the first sailor to row solo across the Atlantic Ocean in a west-east direction.

On 13 June 2003, French rower [[Maud Fontenoy]] started an eastward crossing of the Atlantic from [[Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon]]. She reached [[A Coruña]] in Spain on 10 October, becoming the first woman to accomplish this feat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maudfontenoyfondation.com/en/ses-traversees-et-son-tour-du-monde.html|website=Fontenroy Foundation|title=Ses-traversees-et-son-tour-du-monde|access-date=19 June 2013|archive-date=6 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706235254/http://maudfontenoyfondation.com/en/ses-traversees-et-son-tour-du-monde.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2005, the [[Vivaldi Atlantic 4]] broke the previous rowing record of 55 days and setting a new record of 39 days.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rowing the Atlantic |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/insideout/northeast/series10/week3_vivaldi_atlantic_rowing.shtml |access-date=29 August 2019 |agency=BBC |date=25 September 2006}}</ref>

On 26 October 2010, Polish [[sexagenarian]] [[Aleksander Doba]] was the first recorded individual to complete a non-stop transatlantic crossing by [[kayak]]. He departed [[Dakar, Senegal]] and arrived in Brazil 99 days later.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.wired.com/playbook/2011/02/epic-kayak-guy/ | title=64-Year-Old Kayaker Completes Trans-Atlantic Voyage | magazine=Wired | date=10 February 2011 | access-date=2 July 2012}}</ref>

=====Transatlantic rowing races=====
{{Main|Atlantic Rowing Race}}
In 1997, the first East–West Atlantic Rowing Race took place, running from the [[Canary Islands]] to the [[Caribbean]]. It now runs roughly once every two years.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}}

In 2006, the first West–East North Atlantic Rowing Race took place, running from [[New York City]] to [[Falmouth, Cornwall]] in the [[UK]].{{citation needed|date=July 2018}}

=====Sail=====
{{main|Transatlantic sailing record}}
[[Image:Banque populaire5-003.jpg|thumb|[[Banque Populaire V]], current record holder]]
In 1775, the 62-ton [[schooner]] ''Quero'', sailed by John Derby from [[Salem, Massachusetts]] to the [[Isle of Wight]] in 28 days (April 28 to May 25).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Borneman |first1=Walter R. |title=American spring: Lexington, Concord, and the road to revolution |date=2014 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0316221023 |page=248 |edition=First}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rantoul |first1=Robert S. |title=The cruise of the "Quero": How we carried the news to the king. A neglected chapter in local history |date=2018 |publisher=Forgotten Books |isbn=978-0484107105 |orig-date=Reproduction of an historical work, originally published 1832}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruppert |first1=Bob |title=A Fast Ship from Salem: Carrying News of War |journal=Journal of the American Revolution |date=17 April 2015 |url=https://allthingsliberty.com/2015/04/a-fast-ship-from-salem-carrying-news-of-war/ |access-date=23 March 2022}}</ref>

In 1866, the {{convert|26|ft|m|adj=on}} [[lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]] ''[[Red, White and Blue (ship)|Red, White and Blue]]'' sailed from [[New York City]] to [[Margate]], England, in 38 days.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nautical archive, ship horn of the Red White & Blue |url=https://www.liveauctioneers.com/en-gb/item/72815778_nautical-archive-ship-horn-of-the-red-white-and-blue |website=liveauctioneers.com |publisher=Live Auctioneers |access-date=19 September 2020 |date=13 July 2019}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2022}} In 1870 and 1871, The 20-ft [[yawl]] [[City of Ragusa (ship)|City of Ragusa]] sailed from [[Queenstown, County Cork|Queenstown]], Ireland, to [[New York City|New York]] and back, crewed by two men (and a dog) each way.<ref>{{cite news |title=The City of Ragusa |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001646/18710630/086/0002 |access-date=11 September 2020 |work=Cork Constitution |agency=British Newspaper Archive |date=30 June 1871 |page=2 col.6}}</ref>

==Transatlantic flights==
{{Main|Transatlantic flight}}
Transatlantic flight surpassed ocean liners as the predominant mode of crossing the Atlantic in the mid 20th century.  In 1919, the American [[NC-4]] became the first [[airplane]] to cross the Atlantic (but in multiple stages). Later that year, a British [[Vickers Vimy]] piloted by [[Alcock and Brown]] made the first non-stop transatlantic flight from [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] to [[Ireland]]. Also in 1919, the British were the first to cross the Atlantic in an [[airship]] when the [[R33 class airship|R34]] captained by Major George Herbert Scott of the [[Royal Air Force]] with his crew and passengers flew from East Fortune, Scotland  to Mineola, Long Island, covering a distance of about {{convert|3000|smi|km}} in about four and a half days; he then made a return trip to England, thus also completing the first double crossing of the Atlantic (east–west–east). The first aerial crossing of the South Atlantic was made by the Portuguese naval aviators [[Gago Coutinho]] and [[Sacadura Cabral]] in 1922. Coutinho and Cabral flew from [[Lisbon, Portugal]], to [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil in stages, using three different [[Fairey III]] biplanes, and they covered a distance of {{convert|8383|km}} between 30 March and 17 June. The first night-time crossing of the Atlantic was accomplished during 16–17 April 1927 by the Portuguese aviators [[José Manuel Sarmento de Beires|Sarmento de Beires]], Jorge de Castilho and Manuel Gouveia, flying from the [[Bijagós Archipelago]], [[Portuguese Guinea]], to [[Fernando de Noronha]], Brazil in the ''Argos'', a [[Dornier Do J|Dornier Wal]] flying boat. In May 1927, [[Charles Lindbergh]] made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an airplane (between [[New York City]] and [[Paris]]). The second solo piloting, and the first to carry a passenger, was [[Clarence Duncan Chamberlin]] on 6 June 1927. [[Edward R. Armstrong]] proposed a string of anchored "seadromes" to refuel planes in a crossing.

The first serious attempt to take a share of the transatlantic passenger market away from the ocean liners was undertaken by [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]. In the 1930s, Germany crossed the Atlantic with [[Zeppelin]]s that could carry about 60 passengers in a similar luxurious style to the ocean liners. However, the [[Hindenburg disaster|''Hindenburg'' disaster]] in 1937 put an end to transatlantic Zeppelin flights.

On 1 June 1944, two [[K class blimp|K-class blimps]] from Blimp Squadron ZP-14 of the [[United States Navy]] (USN) completed the first transatlantic crossing by [[Blimp|non-rigid airships]]. The two K-ships (K-123 and K-130) left [[South Weymouth Naval Air Station|South Weymouth, MA]] on 28 May 1944 and flew approximately 16 hours to [[Naval Station Argentia]], Newfoundland.  From Argentia, the blimps flew approximately 22 hours to [[Lajes Field]] on Terceira Island in the Azores.  The final leg of the first transatlantic crossing was about a 20-hour flight from the Azores to [[Kenitra Airport|Craw Field]] in Port Lyautey ([[Kenitra]]), French [[Morocco]].<ref>Kline, R. C. and Kubarych, S. J., Blimpron 14 Overseas, 1944, Naval Historical Center, Navy Yard, Washington, D. C.</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Kaiser |first1=Don |title=K-Ships Across the Atlantic |url=https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/fbd712_4eac320cdad44dd68701e9cecad8e446.pdf |magazine=Naval Aviation News |publisher=Chief of Naval Operations and Naval Air Systems Command, Navy Dept.|date=2011 |issue=Spring 2011 |location=Washington, DC |pages=20–23 |issn=0028-1417}}</ref>

Beginning in the 1950s, the predominance of ocean liners began to wane when larger, [[jet engine|jet]]-powered airplanes began carrying passengers across the ocean in less and less time.  The speed of crossing the ocean therefore became more important than the style of crossing it.  The maturing passenger [[Jet Age]] starting with the [[Boeing 707]] reduced the typical crossing time between [[London]] and [[New York City]] to between 6.5 and 8 hours, depending on weather conditions.  By the 1970s, supersonic [[Concorde]] airplanes could connect the two cities in less than 4 hours, and only one ocean liner, ''[[Queen Elizabeth 2]]'' remained on the transatlantic route for those who favored the slower style of travel.

The economics of commercial transatlantic flying have evolved markedly since the 1950s; the introduction of [[Wide-body aircraft|widebody]] airliners (such as the [[Boeing 747]] and [[Douglas DC-10]]) in the early 1970s made affordable transatlantic travel to the masses a reality.  Since the 1990s, the high [[reliability engineering|reliability]] of modern jet engines has meant that twin-engine jet aircraft such as the [[Boeing 767]], [[Boeing 777]] and [[Airbus A330]] have largely taken over on transatlantic routes from quad-engine jets, whilst the supersonic Concorde was ultimately doomed by its high running costs, leading to its retirement in 2003.  Since the late 1990s, twin-engined, narrow-body jet airliners have been used for transatlantic service, meaning that city pairs between major North American hubs and secondary European cities can now be connected directly without the need for larger widebody jets, which were uneconomic on routes with lower passenger demand.  The [[Boeing 757]] started this trend when it became [[ETOPS]] certified, although the most recent versions of both the [[Boeing 737]] and [[Airbus A320]] now have transatlantic capability.

== Transatlantic cables ==
{{Further|Transatlantic communications cable}}

Transatlantic cables are cables that have been laid along the ocean floor to connect North America and Europe. Before the advent of [[radio]], the only means of communication across the Atlantic Ocean was to physically connect the continents with a [[transatlantic telegraph cable]], the first of which was installed from [[Valentia Island|Valentia]], [[Ireland]] to [[Heart's Content, Newfoundland and Labrador|Heart's Content]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] in 1858.  It worked for a month.

The first pair of eastbound and westbound transatlantic telephone cables, [[TAT-1]], were laid in 1955 and 1956 by the [[cable ship]] [[CS Monarch (1945)|HMTS ''Monarch'']].  The first transatlantic fiber optic cable, [[TAT-8]], was installed in 1988.

The [[exchange rate]] between the [[United States dollar]] and [[Pound Sterling|British pound]] is still colloquially known as "cable" by financial marketeers, from the early use of the transatlantic cable for this purpose.

== Transatlantic tunnel ==
{{Main|Transatlantic tunnel}}
A transatlantic tunnel is a theoretical structure proposed several times since the late 19th century. It would be a [[tunnel]] spanning the [[Atlantic Ocean]] between [[New York City]] and the [[United Kingdom]] or [[France]].

==Duration of transatlantic crossings==
The introduction of various technologies facilitated progressively faster transatlantic crossings. The duration to travel westbound from Europe to North America when a new transport innovation was introduced for commercial use is listed below:<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-11-08 |title=Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times, 1833 – 1952 {{!}} The Geography of Transport Systems |url=https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/liner-transatlantic-crossing-time/ |access-date=2023-11-29 |language=en-US}}</ref>

* 1620: 66 days: [[fluyt]] ''[[Mayflower]]'' (Southampton to Cape Cod)
* 1838: 18 days 4 hours: [[paddle steamer]] SS ''[[SS Sirius (1837)|Sirius]]'' ([[Cork (city)|Cork]] to [[New York City]])
* 1863: 8 days 3 hours: single screw [[steamship]] RMS {{RMS|Scotia||2}} (Queenstown to [[New York City]])
* 1889: 5 days 19 hours: double screw [[steamship]] SS ''[[SS City of Paris (1865)|City of Paris]]'' (Queenstown to [[Sandy Hook, New Jersey|Sandy Hook]])
* 1907: 4 days 20 hours: [[steam turbine]]-equipped [[steamship]]: RMS {{RMS|Lusitania||2}} (Queenstown to [[Sandy Hook, New Jersey|Sandy Hook]])
* 1929: 4 days 3 hours: [[bulbous bow]]-equipped [[steamship]]: SS {{SS|Bremen|1928|2}} ([[Cherbourg]] to [[Ambrose Light]])
* 1936: 4 days: [[Yarrow boiler]]-equipped [[steamship]]: RMS {{RMS|Queen Mary||2}} ([[Bishop Rock]] to [[Ambrose Light]])
* 1936: 2 days 5 hours: [[airship]] LZ 129 ''[[LZ 129 Hindenburg|Hindenburg]]'' ([[Frankfurt]] to [[Lakehurst, New Jersey|Lakehurst]])
* 1939: 1 day 3 hours: [[flying boat]] [[Pan Am]] [[Boeing 314 Clipper]] ''Yankee Clipper''  ([[Southampton]] to [[Port Washington, New York|Port Washington]] via Foynes, Botwood and Shediac)
* 1945: 14 hours: landplane [[American Overseas Airlines]] [[Douglas DC-4]] ([[London]] to [[New York City]] via [[Gander, Newfoundland]])
* 1958: 10 hours 20 minutes: jet aircraft [[BOAC]] [[de Havilland Comet]] ([[London]] to [[New York City]] via Gander)
* 1976: 3 hours 30 minutes: supersonic aircraft [[British Airways]] [[Concorde]] ([[London]] to [[Washington, D.C.]])

==See also==
* [[Transatlantic relations]]
* [[Transatlantic flight]]
* [[Transpacific crossing]]
* [[Transpacific flight]]
* [[Atlantic slave trade]]

==Citations==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Fowler Jr., William M. ''Steam Titans: Cunard, Collins, and the Epic Battle for Commerce on the North Atlantic'' (London: Bloomsbury), 2017. 358 pp

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{commons|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=n-MDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Mechanics+1931+curtiss&pg=PA746 "Evolution of trans-Atlantic Ships", May 1931, ''Popular Mechanics'']

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:International transport]]
[[Category:Transport in the Atlantic Ocean|Crossing]]
[[Category:Transatlantic relations|Crossing]]
[[Category:Crossings]]