Editing Transboundary protected area

{{short description|Conservation region spanning the boundaries of multiple states}}
{{redirect|Peace park||Peace park (disambiguation)}}
[[File:MK02244 Waterton Glacier International Peace Park.jpg|thumb|[[Flag of Canada|Flags of Canada]] and the [[Flag of the United States|United States]] in [[Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park]]]]

A '''transboundary protected area''' ('''TBPA''') is an ecological [[protected area]] that spans boundaries of more than one [[country]] or sub-national entity. Such areas are also known as '''transfrontier conservation areas''' ('''TFCAs''') or '''peace parks'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tbpa.net/|title=Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network|website=Tbpa.net|access-date=2018-08-15}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Peace parks : conservation and conflict resolution|date=2007|publisher=MIT Press|others=Ali, Saleem H. (Saleem Hassan), 1973-|isbn=9780262266970|location=Cambridge, Mass.|oclc=173511323}}</ref>

TBPAs exist in many forms around the world,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sadc.int/files/6313/5852/1201/unep-2007-global-list-of-transboundary-pas-en.pdf.pdf|title=2007 UNEP-WCMC Global List of Transboundary Protected Areas |last=Lysenko |first=Daniel |date=2007 |website=Southern African Development Community |access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> and are established for various reasons. The preservation of traditional animal migration patterns, ensuring sufficient food and water sources for population growth, is a critical reason for the creation of TBPAs. However, TBPAs also encourage [[tourism]], economic development and goodwill between neighbouring countries, as well as making it easier for [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] inhabitants of the area to travel.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarc.org/news/2018/09/transboundary-parks-award-2018-pasvik-inari-trilateral-park/|title=Transboundary Parks Award 2018 - Pasvik-Inari Trilateral Park|date=28 September 2018|website=EUROPARC Federation|access-date=14 March 2019}}</ref>{{nonspecific|date=August 2018}}<!-- this is a intro link to a website that has changed frequently since 2011; need a specific source that says these parks are in many forms around the world; this (in 2018) only says there are some in Europe. -->

== Types of transboundary protected areas ==
TBPAs exist in various types of geographic configuration, with various levels of ecological protection, and with various levels of international cooperation. Additionally, different organizations employ different definitions for TBPAs. Julia Marton-Lefevre broadly defines TBPAs as "areas that involve a degree of cooperation across one or more boundaries between (or within) countries."<ref name=":4" /> The Southern Africa Development Community's Protocol on Wildlife Conservation and Law Enforcement defines Transfrontier Conservation Area as "the area or the component of a large ecological region that straddles the boundaries of two or more countries, encompassing one or more protected areas, as well as multiple resources use areas."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sadc.int/files/4813/7042/6186/Wildlife_Conservation.pdf|title=Protocol on Wildlife Conservation and Law Enforcement|website=Sadc.int}}</ref> The Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network (GTPAN) lists four types of "transboundary conservation areas:"

* Type 1: transboundary protected area;
* Type 2: transboundary conservation landscape and/or seascape;
* Type 3: transboundary conservation migration area; and
* Special designation: park for peace.<ref name=":5">[http://www.tbpa.net/page.php?ndx=83 Typology of Transboundary Conservation Areas] Retrieved: 31 December 2016</ref>

GTPAN defines a transboundary protected area as "a clearly defined geographical space that includes protected areas that are ecologically connected across one or more international boundaries and involves some form of cooperation." GTPAN defines a transboundary conservation landscape and/or seascape as "an ecologically connected area that includes both protected areas and multiple resource use areas across one or more international boundaries and involves some form of cooperation."<ref name=":5" />

GTPAN defines a transboundary conservation migration area as "wildlife habitats in two or more countries that are necessary to sustain populations of migratory species and involve some form of cooperation."<ref name=":5" />

GTPAN defines a "park for peace" as "any of the three types of transboundary conservation areas [that is] dedicated to the promotion, celebration and/or commemoration of peace and cooperation."

In many instances, individual TBPAs are part of broader international environmental or cultural programs. TBPAs can be [[World Heritage Site]]s, [[Ramsar Wetlands]], and/or [[UNESCO biosphere reserve|UNESCO Biosphere Reserves]].

==History of transboundary protected areas==
<!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Peace Parks Foundation logo.svg|thumb|120px|Peace Parks Foundation logo.]] -->
In 1932, the governments of Canada and the United States passed legislation creating the first international peace park: Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. This action followed from a joint resolution of the [[Rotary International|Rotary Clubs]] of Montana and Alberta calling for the creation of the peace park.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ab/waterton/culture/designation|title=Designation information|last=Canada|first=Parks Canada Agency, Government of|website=Pc.gc.ca|access-date=2018-11-13}}</ref>

On 1 February 1997, [[Anton Rupert]], together with [[Prince Bernhard|Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands]] and [[Nelson Mandela]], founded the [[Peace Parks Foundation]] as a [[nonprofit organization|nonprofit organisation]] to facilitate the establishment of transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.peaceparks.org/story.php?pid=1&mid=2|title=Origins of Peace Parks Foundation|last=Thiel|first=Erhardt|date=2009|website=Peaceparks.org|publisher=Peace Parks Foundation|access-date=31 December 2016}}</ref>

A 2001 study by the World Conservation Union found "there were 166 existing transboundary protected area complexes worldwide comprising 666 individual conservation zones."<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Peace Parks: Conservation and Conflict Resolution|last=Ali|first=Saleem|publisher=The MIT Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-262-51198-8|pages=i.; 2; 7; 14}}</ref>

In 2007, the Global Transboundary Conservation Network published a global inventory of transboundary protected areas identifying 227 transboundary protected areas.<ref name=tbpa2007>
{{cite web |url=http://www.tbpa.net/page.php?ndx=78 |title=UNEP-WCMC Transboundary Protected Areas Inventory-2007 |publisher=Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network |website=Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network |access-date=2018-01-31}}</ref>

== Established transboundary protected areas ==
===Africa===
[[File:Natural wonders topic image Victoria falls.jpg|thumb|[[Victoria Falls]]--National Parks in Zambia and Zimbabwe form a TBPA.]]

==== Transboundary World Heritage Sites ====
* [[Maloti-Drakensberg Park]] is a [[World Heritage Site]] on the border of [[Lesotho]] and [[South Africa]]. [[Sehlabathebe National Park]] in Lesotho and [[UKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park|uKahlamba Drakensberg Park]] form the core of the site.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/985|title=Maloti-Drakensberg Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref>
* [[Mosi-oa-Tunya / Victoria Falls|Mosi-oa-Tunya/Victoria Falls]] is a World Heritage Site on the border of [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/509|title=Mosi-oa-Tunya / Victoria Falls|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref>
* [[Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve]] is a World Heritage Site on the border of [[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Guinea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/155/|title=Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-27}}</ref>
* [[Sangha Trinational]] is a World Heritage Site on the borders of [[Cameroon]], the [[Central African Republic]], and the [[Republic of the Congo|Republic of Congo]]. [[Lobéké National Park|Lobeke National Park]], [[Dzanga-Ndoki National Park]], and [[Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park|Nouabale-Ndoki National Park]] in the respective nations comprise the core of the site, with additional forested buffer zones extending beyond the parks. A Trinational Monitoring and Action Committee provides ministerial level coordination between the nations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1380|title=Sangha Trinational|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref>
*[[Virunga Volcanoes Transboundary Conservation Area]] is a UNESCO World Heritage complex on the border of Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Uganda.<ref name=tbpa2007 /> It is partially composed of Democratic Republic of Congo's [[Virunga National Park]], Uganda's [[Rwenzori Mountains National Park]] and [[Queen Elizabeth National Park]], and Rwanda's [[Volcanoes National Park]].<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/63|title=Virunga National Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/684/multiple=1&unique_number=808|title=Rwenzori Mountains National Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-16}}</ref>
* [[W-Arly-Pendjari]] is a World Heritage Site on the borders of [[Niger]], [[Burkina Faso]], and [[Benin]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/749|title=W-Arly-Pendjari Complex|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref> The site is also designated as a Ramsar wetland<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/355|title=Parc national du W {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref> and a UNESCO biosphere reserve.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/transboundary-biosphere-reserves/|title=Transboundary Biosphere Reserves {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|website=Unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-10}}</ref>

==== Transboundary Ramsar Wetlands ====
* [[Complexe Kokorou-Namga]] is a transfrontier Ramsar wetland between Burkina Faso and Mali.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Griffin|first=Pamela|date=January 2012|title=The Ramsar Convention: A new window for environmental diplomacy?|url=http://www.uvm.edu/ieds/node/941|journal=Institute for Environmental Diplomacy & Security @ the University of Vermont|volume=A1-2012-1|pages=6–12}}</ref>
*[[Complexe Transfrontalier Lac Tele-Grands Affluents-Lac Tumba]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/list_of_transboundary_sites.pdf|title=List of Transboundary Ramsar Sites|website=Ramsar.org}}</ref>
*[[Niumi-Saloum]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Gambia and Senegal. It is composed of [[Niumi National Park]] in Gambia and [[Saloum Delta National Park|Delta du Saloum National Park]] in Senegal.<ref name=":0" />
* A transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex covers [[Lake Chad]], composed of sites in Niger, Chad, Nigeria, and Cameroon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1072|title=Lac Tchad {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1134|title=Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1749|title=Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1903|title=Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref>
*[[Zone Humide du Moyen]] is a transfrontier Ramsar wetland on the border of Benin and Nigeria.<ref name=":0" />

==== Transboundary Biosphere Reserves ====
*[[Delta du Fleuve Senegal]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Mauritania and Senegal.<ref name=":3" />
* Mono is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Benin and Togo.<ref name=":3" />

==== Transboundary Conservation Complexes ====
* [[ǀAi-ǀAis/Richtersveld Transfrontier Park]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Namibia and South Africa.<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.peaceparks.org/tfca.php?pid=19&mid=1001|title=/Ai /Ais-Richtersveld Transfrontier Park|work=Peace Parks Foundation|access-date=2018-02-22}}</ref>
* '''Chimanimani Transfrontier Park''' is a transboundary conservation area on the border of Mozambique and Zimbabwe, made up of Mozambique's [[Chimanimani National Reserve]] and Zimbabwe's [[Chimanimani National Park]].
* [[Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. It is partially composed of Mozambique's [[Limpopo National Park]], South Africa's [[Kruger National Park]] and Zimbabwe's [[Gonarezhou National Park]] and Sengwe Corridor.<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.peaceparks.org/tfca.php?pid=19&mid=1005|title=Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area|work=Peace Parks Foundation|access-date=2018-02-22}}</ref>
*[[Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area|Greater Mapungubwe]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.peaceparks.org/tfca.php?pid=19&mid=1003|title=Greater Mapungubwe|work=Peace Parks Foundation|access-date=2018-02-22}}</ref>
*[[Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area|Kavango Zambezi]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the borders of Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is the world's largest TBPA and encompasses the Mosi-oa-Tunya World Heritage site listed above.<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.peaceparks.org/tfca.php?pid=19&mid=1008|title=Kavango Zambezi|work=Peace Parks Foundation|access-date=2018-02-22}}</ref>
* [[Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Botswana and South Africa.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
* Kidepo is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of South Sudan and Uganda. It is composed of South Sudan's [[Kidepo Game Reserve]] and Uganda's [[Kidepo Valley National Park]].<ref name=tbpa2007 />
* Kilimanjaro is a transboundary conservation complex centered around Mount Kilimanjaro and on the border of Kenya and Tanzania. It is composed of Tanzania's [[Kilimanjaro National Park]], a UNESCO World Heritage site, and Kenya's [[Amboseli National Park]].<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/403|title=Kilimanjaro National Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-21}}</ref>
*[[Lower Zambezi - Mana Pools]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.peaceparks.org/tfca.php?pid=19&mid=1019|title=Lower Zambezi - Mana Pools TFCA|work=Peace Parks Foundation|access-date=2018-02-22}}</ref>
* [[Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Mozambique, South Africa and Eswatini.<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.peaceparks.org/tfca.php?pid=19&mid=1006|title=Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation and Resource Area|work=Peace Parks Foundation|access-date=2018-02-22}}</ref>
* Malawi-Zambia TFCA is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Malawi and Zambia. It crosses the border at multiple locations.<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.peaceparks.org/tfca.php?pid=19&mid=1007|title=Malawi-Zambia TFCA|work=Peace Parks Foundation|access-date=2018-02-22}}</ref>
*[[Niokolo Koba-Badiar]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Guinea and Senegal.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
*[[Serengeti-Masai]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Kenya and Tanzania.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
* A transboundary conservation complex crosses the border of Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire. It is composed partially of a Ramsar wetland in Burkina Faso and the National Park of [[Comoé National Park|Comoe]] in Côte d'Ivoire.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1878|title=La Forêt Classée et Réserve Partielle de Faune Comoé-Léraba {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref>
* The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists additional TBPAs on the borders of:
*# Liberia and Sierra Leone;
*# Guinea and Liberia;
*# Côte d'Ivoire and Liberia;
*# Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana at three locations;
*# Cameroon and Nigeria at two locations;
*# Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea;
*# Central African Republic and Sudan;
*# Congo and Gabon;
*# Democratic Republic of the Congo and what is now South Sudan;
*# What is now South Sudan and Uganda;
*# Kenya and Uganda;
*# Kenya and Somalia;
*# Burundi and Rwanda;
*# Rwanda and Tanzania;
*# Tanzania and Uganda;
*# Tanzania and Zambia;
*# Mozambique and Tanzania; and
*# Angola and Namibia.<ref name=tbpa2007 />

[[File:Uvs nuur.jpg|thumb|[[Uvs Lake Basin|Uvs Nuur Basin]] is a TBPA in Mongolia and Russia.]]

===Asia===
*[[Govater Bay and Hur-e-Bahu - Jiwani Coastal Wetland]] is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Iran and Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1066|title=Jiwani Coastal Wetland {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1006|title=Govater Bay and Hur-e-Bahu {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref>
*[[Hamun-e-Puzak, south end - Hamun-e-Saberi & Hamun-e-Helmand]] is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Afghanistan and Iran.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/44|title=Hamun-e-Puzak, south end {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/42|title=Hamun-e-Saberi & Hamun-e-Helmand {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref>
* [[Landscapes of Dauria]] is a World Heritage Site on the border of [[Mongolia]] and [[Russia]] on the Daurian Steppe. It is composed of [[Dornod Mongol Biosphere Reserve]] in Mongolia and [[Daursky Nature Reserve]] in Russia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1448|title=Landscapes of Dauria|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref>
*[[Labi Hills/Gunung Pulu]] Transboundary Complex is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Brunei and Malaysia.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
* The [[Lanjak Entimau/Batang/Ai/Betung Kerihun Complex]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Indonesia and Malaysia.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://wwf.panda.org/?208763/The-dream-of-a-rainforest-transfrontier-reserve-in-the-Heart-of-Borneo-cross-border-expedition-Betung-Kerihun-Batang-AiLanjak-Entimau|title=The dream of a rainforest transfrontier reserve in the Heart of Borneo: cross-border expedition|access-date=2018-02-05}}</ref> The countries have two additional TBPAs on their border.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
* Taxkorgan is a transboundary protected area on the border of [[Afghanistan]], [[China]], and [[Pakistan]]. Afghanistan's [[Wahan National Park]], China's [[Taxkorgan Nature Reserve]], and Pakistan's [[Khunjerab National Park]] form the site.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/02/opinion/saving-more-than-just-snow-leopards.html|title=Opinion {{!}} Saving More Than Just Snow Leopards|last1=Zahler|first1=Peter|date=2014-02-01|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-01-31|last2=Schaller|first2=George|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> 
*{{Anchor|Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area}}The Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miclat |first=Evangeline |title=Marine transboundary conservation and protected areas |last2=Nunez |first2=Enrique |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72427-0 |editor-last=Mackelworth |editor-first=Peter |series=Earthscan oceans |location=London New York |chapter=The Philippines–Sabah Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area (TIHPA)}}</ref> (TIHPA) is a [[marine protected area]] spanning part of Malaysia and the Philippines. The creation of a protected area for nesting was first recommended at the December 1993 First ASEAN Symposium-Workshop on Marine Turtle Conservation.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |date=2002 |title=Memorandum of Agreement between the Government of the Republic of the Philippines and the Government of Malaysia on the Establishment of the Turtle Island Heritage Protected Area |journal=Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy |volume=5 |pages=157}}</ref> Sea turtle egg production had declined by 88% due to over-fishing and habitat destruction,<ref name=":52">{{Cite journal |date=January 1997 |title=Briefly |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0030605300021864/type/journal_article |journal=Oryx |language=en |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=15–31 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-3008.1997.d01-84.x |issn=0030-6053}}</ref> and a decision was made by both the Philippines and Malaysian governments to safeguard their rookeries.<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal |last=Mackelworth |first=Peter |date=April 2012 |title=Peace parks and transboundary initiatives: implications for marine conservation and spatial planning |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00223.x |journal=Conservation Letters |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=90–98 |doi=10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00223.x |issn=1755-263X|doi-access=free }}</ref> The establishment of the area occurred during a territorial dispute between the two countries over their maritime borders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guerreiro |first=José |last2=Chircop |first2=Aldo |last3=Grilo |first3=Catarina |last4=Viras |first4=Ana |last5=Ribeiro |first5=Raquel |last6=van der Elst |first6=Rudy |date=September 2010 |title=Establishing a transboundary network of marine protected areas: Diplomatic and management options for the east African context |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0308597X10000151 |journal=Marine Policy |language=en |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=896–910 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2010.01.014|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Ângelo Guerreiro da Silva |first=José |last2=Curto Fernandes e Castro Ribeiro |first2=Raquel |last3=de Carvalho Cameira Mocinho Viras |first3=Ana |last4=Bentes Silva Grilo |first4=Catarina |date=2012-06-08 |editor-last=Azeiteiro |editor-first=Ulisses M |title=Transboundary MPAs: a challenge for the twenty‐first century |url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/14777831211232191/full/html |journal=Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=328–346 |doi=10.1108/14777831211232191 |issn=1477-7835|url-access=subscription }}</ref> On May 31, 1996, a memorandum of agreement was signed by the two governments and the area was formally established<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last=Ellett |first=Lindsey G. |last2=Thomsen |first2=Jennifer M. |last3=Besançon |first3=Charles |date=January 2025 |title=Potential barriers and windows of opportunity for transboundary marine management in the Sulu-Sulawesi seascape: A policy analysis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0308597X24004731 |journal=Marine Policy |language=en |volume=171 |pages=106473 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2024.106473|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":12" /> with three islands in Malaysia and six in the Philippines.<ref name=":22" /> The Malaysia government cleared their islands of people and created the [[Turtle Islands Park]]<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Fischer |first=Cecilia |last2=Trono |first2=Romeo B. |last3=Salinas |first3=Rizza Araceli F. |date=December 2021 |title=Addressing gaps in socio-economic and natural assets to halt marine turtle egg poaching: A livelihood feasibility study in the Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary, Philippines |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2351989421004637 |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |language=en |volume=32 |pages=e01913 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01913|doi-access=free }}</ref> on October 1, 1997;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kheng-Lian |first=Koh |last2=Robinson |first2=Nicholas A. |title=Strengthening Sustainable Development in Regional Inter-Governmental Governance: Lessons from the ASEAN Way |journal=Singapore Journal of International & Comparative Law |volume=6 |pages=652-653}}</ref> the Philippines officially created the [[Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary]] to administer their islands in 1999.<ref name=":02" /> Both regions are administered primarily by their respective governments, though there is a joint management committee.<ref name=":62" /> The TIHPA is the largest turtle nesting area and only nesting area for the [[green sea turtle]] (''Chelonia mydas'') in [[ASEAN]].<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":42">{{Citation |last=China-ASEAN Environmental Cooperation Center |title=Policy Measures for Regional Green Development |date=2018 |work=China-ASEAN Environment Outlook 1 (CAEO-1) |pages=109–153 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-10-6211-7_4 |access-date=2025-04-29 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer Singapore |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-6211-7_4 |isbn=978-981-10-6210-0|url-access=subscription }}</ref> When the site was established, it held the world's largest rookery;<ref name=":52" /> as of 2017, it had remained one of their most important nesting sites.<ref name=":42" /> The area also provides nesting sites for [[Hawksbill turtle]] (''Eretmochelys imbricata''). In 2017, there were 34 species of birds, between 76 and 128 species of fish, 62 species of marine plants, 15 woody plants, and between 24 and 27 genera of corals. It also had snakes and monitor lizards.<ref name=":42" />
* Uvs Nuur Basin is a World Heritage Site on the border of Mongolia and Russia covering [[Uvs Nuur Lake]] and protecting its wetlands.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/769|title=Uvs Nuur Basin|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref> Mongolia and Russia have two more bilateral TBPAs on their border.<ref name=tbpa2007 /> 
*[[Wasur-Tonda Transboundary Conservation Area]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
* The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists an additional 49 TBPAs in Asian nations.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
* The [[Heart of Borneo]] is a transboundary protected area on the island of [[Borneo]] which includes the nations of [[Brunei]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Indonesia]].<ref name="Brosius">{{cite journal |last1=Brosius |first1=J. Peter |last2=Campbell |first2=Lisa M. |title=Collaborative Event Ethnography: Conservation and Development Trade-offs at the World Conservation Congress |journal=Conservation and Society |date=2010 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=253 |doi=10.4103/0972-4923.78141|url=http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/8308/Collaborative%20Event%20Ethnography.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:Dalmatian Pelican and Great Cormorant in danube delta.jpg|thumb|The [[Danube Delta]] is a TBPA and home to pelicans and cormorants.]]

===Europe===
==== Transboundary World Heritage Sites ====
* [[Bialowieza Forest]] is a [[World Heritage Site]] on the border of [[Belarus]] and [[Poland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/33|title=Bialowieza Forest|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref>
* [[Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst]] is a World Heritage Site on the border of [[Slovakia]] and [[Hungary]]. It is formed by [[Aggtelek National Park]] in Hungary and [[Slovak Karst National Park]] in Slovakia. The site protects 712 [[karst]]ic caves for ecology, paleontology and tourism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/725/|title=Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref>
* [[Curonian Spit]] is a World Heritage Site on the border of [[Lithuania]] and [[Russia]]. Lithuania's [[Curonian Spit National Park (Lithuania)|Curonian Spit National Park]] and Russia's [[Curonian Spit National Park (Russia)|Kurshskaya National Park]] form the site.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/994|title=Curonian Spit|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-27}}</ref>
* [[Monte San Giorgio]] is a World Heritage Site on the border of [[Italy]] and [[Switzerland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1090|title=Monte San Giorgio|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref>
* [[Muskau Park|Muskauer Park/Park Muzakowski]] is a World Heritage Site on the border of [[Germany]] and Poland. The site preserves a historically significant landscape park originally created in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1127|title=Muskauer Park / Park Muzakowski|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-27}}</ref>
* [[Pyrénées – Mont Perdu World Heritage Site|Pyrenees-Mont Perdu]] is a World Heritage Site on the border of [[France]] and [[Spain]]. France's [[Pyrénées National Park|Pyrenees National Park]] and Spain's [[Parque Nacional de Ordesa y Monte Perdido]] form the core of the site.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/773/|title=Pyrénées - Mont Perdu|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref>
* [[Rhaetian Railway|Rhaetian Railway in the Albula/Bernina Landscapes]] is a World Heritage Site in Italy and Switzerland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1276/|title=Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-27}}</ref>
* [[Wadden Sea National Parks|Wadden Sea]] is a World Heritage Site running through the maritime territories of [[Denmark]], Germany and [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]]. It is composed of multiple national parks across the participating nations, covering the world's largest contiguous system of mudflats and intertidal sand. The Trilateral Cooperation on the Protection of the Wadden Sea coordinates the site's conservation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1314/|title=Wadden Sea|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref> Wadden Sea is also designated as a transboundary Ramsar wetland.<ref name=":2" />

==== Transboundary Ramsar Wetlands ====
* [[Adutiškis]]-Vileity is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Belarus and Lithuania.<ref name=":2" /> 
*[[Austrian-Bavarian Wildalm]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Austria and Germany.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ramsar.org/news/new-transboundary-ramsar-site|title=New Transboundary Ramsar Site {{!}} Ramsar|website=Ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref>
*[[Baradla Cave System and related wetlands|Baradla Cave System and Domica Ramsar Sites]] are cooperatively managed transboundary wetlands on the border of Hungary and Slovakia. This was the first declaration of a transboundary wetland under the Ramsar Convention.<ref name=":0" />
*[[Bistret-Ibisha Island]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Bulgaria and Romania. It is composed of Ibisha Island in Bulgaria and Bistret in Romania.<ref name=":2" />
*[[Gornje Podunavije - Gemenc - Kopacki Rit]] is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Croatia, Hungary and Serbia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1737|title=Gornje Podunavlje {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-25}}</ref>
* Ipoly Valley and Poiplie are transboundary Ramsar wetlands on the border of Hungary and Slovakia.<ref name=":0" />
* [[Kotra (river)|Kotra]] and [[Čepkeliai Marsh|Čepkelai]] are transboundary Ramsar wetlands on the border of Belarus and Lithuania.<ref name=":0" />
*[[Krkonose/Karkonosze subalpine peatbogs]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of the Czech Republic and Poland.<ref name=":2" /> The site is also a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve.<ref name=":3" />
*[[Lake Calarasi-Srebarna]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Bulgaria and Romania.<ref name=":2" /> [[Srebarna Nature Reserve]] is the Bulgarian component of this complex and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/219|title=Srebarna Nature Reserve|last=Centre|first=UNESCO World Heritage|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-11-08}}</ref>
*[[Mannavuoma - Lätäseno-Hietajoki Mire]] is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Finland and Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/2172|title=Mannavuoma {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-25}}</ref>
*[[North Livonian Transboundary Ramsar Site]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Estonia and Latvia. It is composed of [[Nigula Nature Reserve]] and [[Sookuninga Nature Reserve]] in Estonia and Northern Bogs in Latvia.<ref name=":2" />
*[[Olmany swamps|Olmany-Perebrody mires]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Belarus and Ukraine.<ref name=":2" />
*[[Prespa Basin]] is a cooperatively managed Ramsar wetland on the border of Albania, Greece and Macedonia.<ref name=":0" />
*[[Upper Rhine|Rhin supérieur/Oberrhein—Oberrhein/Rhin supérieur]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of France and Germany. It is composed of Rhin superieur/Oberrhein in France and Oberrhein/Rhin superieur in Germany.<ref name=":2" />
*[[Stokhid-Prypiat-Prostyr]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Belarus and Ukraine. It is composed of the Prostyr site in Belarus and the [[Pripyat River|Prypiat River]] Floodplains and [[Stokhid River]] Floodplains in Ukraine.<ref name=":2" />
*[[Storkölen-Kvisleflået]] is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Sweden and Norway.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1129|title=Storkölen {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-25}}</ref>
*[[Suhaia-Belene Islands Complex]] is a transboundary Ramsar site on the border of Bulgaria and Romania. It is composed of  Belene Islands Complex in Bulgaria and Suhaia in Romania.<ref name=":2" />
*[[Trilateral Ramsar Site Floodplains of the Morava-Dyje-Danube Confluence]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border Austria, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia.<ref name=":2" />
*[[Transboundary Ramsar Site Neusiedler See-Seewinkel-Ferto-Hansag]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Austria and Hungary.<ref name=":2" />
*[[Upper Tisza Valley]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Hungary and Slovakia. It is composed of the Feslo-Tisza site in Hungary and the Tisa River site in Slovakia.<ref name=":2" />
*[[Vallée de la Haute-Sure]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Belgium and Luxembourg, composed of sites of the same name in both countries.<ref name=":2" />

==== Transboundary Biosphere Reserves ====
Of the world's twenty transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserves, twelve are in Europe. Spain, Portugal, Poland, and Ukraine each contribute to three reserves.
*[[Danube Delta]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Romania and Ukraine.<ref name=":3" />
*[[East Carpathian Biosphere Reserve|East Carpathians]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Poland, Slovakia, and Ukraine.<ref name=":3" />
*[[Geres - Xures]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain.<ref name=":3" />
*[[Meseta Iberica]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain.<ref name=":3" />
*[[Mont Viso / Area della Biosfera del Monviso]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of France and Italy.<ref name=":3" />
*[[Mura Drava Danube]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Croatia and Hungary.<ref name=":3" />
*[[Tatra Mountains|Tatra]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Slovakia and Poland.<ref name=":3" />
*[[Tejo/Tajo Internacional]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain.
*[[Vosges du Nord / Pfalzerwald]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of France and Germany.<ref name=":3" />
* West Polesie is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the borders of Belarus, Poland, and Ukraine.<ref name=":3" />

==== Transboundary Conservation Complexes ====
* The [[European Green Belt]] running along the former [[Iron Curtain]] is considered a peace park.
* A peace park has been established in the [[Red Sea]] between [[Israel]] and [[Jordan]].
* [[Interprovincial Park of Montoni]] ([[Livorno]]/[[Grosseto]], [[Italy]])

===North America===
[[File:Peace arch Canada-US border.jpg|thumb|Flags of Canada and the United States fly on the Peace Arch in [[Peace Arch Park]].]]

====Canada and the United States====
* [[Kluane / Wrangell–St. Elias / Glacier Bay / Tatshenshini-Alsek|Kluane/Wrangell-St. Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek]] is a [[World Heritage Site]] on the border of Canada and the United States. It is composed of [[Kluane National Park and Reserve]] in the [[Yukon|Yukon Territory]], [[Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve|Wrangell-St.Elias National Park]] and [[Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve|Glacier Bay National Park]] in [[Alaska]], and [[Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park]] in [[British Columbia]]. The site includes the world's largest non-polar ice field.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/72|title=Kluane / Wrangell-St. Elias / Glacier Bay / Tatshenshini-Alsek|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref>
* [[Klondike Gold Rush International Historical Park]] – [[Alaska]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[British Columbia]] and [[Yukon]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pc.gc.ca/en/lhn-nhs/yt/chilkoot/activ/hiking-randonee|title=Hiking the Chilkoot Trail|website=Pc.gc.ca|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref>
* The [[Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park]] across the [[United States]]/[[Canada]] border was the first peace park in the Americas, formed by the merger of [[Waterton Lakes National Park|Waterton Lakes]] and [[Glacier National Park (U.S.)|Glacier]] National Parks in 1932.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/354|title=Waterton Glacier International Peace Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref> In contrast to other peace parks, the primary purpose of the union was to serve as a symbol of friendship and peace between the two countries.<ref name="Campobello">{{Cite news|url=http://www.fdr.net/about-the-park.php|title=New Brunswick Vacation {{!}} Maine Vacation {{!}} Roosevelt Campobello Island International Park|work=Campobello|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref>
* [[Roosevelt Campobello International Park]] – [[Maine, United States]]/[[New Brunswick, Canada]]<ref name="Campobello"/>
*[[Peace Arch Park]], lies on the [[British Columbia]]/[[Washington (state)|Washington]] border, and is famous for the [[Peace Arch]], a large peace structure straddling the border itself.
* The border of Canada and the United States has multiple additional transboundary conservation complexes, including complexes composed of:
*# Canada's [[Ivvavik National Park]] and [[Vuntut National Park]], the [[Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation]], and the United States' [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]]; 
*# [[British Columbia]]'s [[Chilliwack Lake Provincial Park]], [[Skagit Valley Provincial Park]], and [[E. C. Manning Provincial Park|EC Manning Provincial Park]], and the United States' [[Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest|Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest]], [[North Cascades National Park]], and [[Ross Lake National Recreation Area]]; 
*# North Dakota's [[Lake Metigoshe State Park]], Manitoba's [[Turtle Mountain Provincial Park]], the United States' [[Rabb Lake National Wildlife Refuge]] and the [[International Peace Garden]]; and
*# [[Ontario]]'s [[Sandpoint Island Provincial Park]] and [[Quetico Provincial Park]], the United States' [[Voyageurs National Park]] and [[Superior National Forest]], and [[Minnesota]]'s [[Kabetogama State Forest]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tbpa.net/page.php?ndx=78|title=Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network|last=Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network|website=Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network|access-date=2018-02-01}}</ref>

=====Canadian interprovincial Parks=====
* [[Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park]] (Alberta–Saskatchewan)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tourismsaskatchewan.com/things-to-do/attractions/102523/cypress-hills-destination-area|title=Cypress Hills Destination Area|website=Tourism Saskatchewan|access-date=2018-01-30}}</ref>
* [[Kakwa-Willmore Interprovincial Park]] (Alberta–British Columbia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.albertaparks.ca/parks/northwest/kakwa-wpp/park-research-management/kakwa-willmore-interprovincial-park/|title=Alberta Parks Kakwa WPP Kakwa-Willmore Interprovincial Park|website=Albertaparks.ca|access-date=2018-01-30}}</ref>
* [[Manitoba–Ontario Interprovincial Wilderness Area]]<ref>[http://www.parkreports.com/parksblog/?p=121/ Ontario Parks Web Log, ''A New Manitoba–Ontario Interprovincial Wilderness Area''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309184748/http://www.parkreports.com/parksblog/?p=121%2F |date=2012-03-09 }} Accessed 11 May 2011</ref>
* [[Parc linéaire interprovincial Petit Témis]] (Quebec–New Brunswick)<ref>[http://www.bonjourquebec.com/qc-en/attractions-directory/trail/parc-lineaire-interprovincial-petit-temis_8502936.html/ Quebec Official Tourism Site, ''Parc linéaire interprovincial Petit Témis''] Accessed 11 May 2011</ref>

=====United States interstate parks=====
* [[Interstate Park]] (Minnesota–Wisconsin)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/state_parks/interstate/narrative.html|title=Park Info: Interstate State Park: Minnesota DNR|website=Dnr.state.mn.us|access-date=2018-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129141627/http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/state_parks/interstate/narrative.html|archive-date=2018-01-29|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Palisades Interstate Park]] (New York–New Jersey)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.njpalisades.org/pipc.html|title=Palisades Interstate Park Commission {{!}} Palisades Interstate Park in New Jersey|website=Njpalisades.org|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref>
* [[Breaks Interstate Park]] (Kentucky–Virginia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.breakspark.com/park-information-hours/park-maps-and-trail-info/|title=Park Maps and Trail Info {{!}} Breaks Park|website=Breakspark.com|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref>

==== Mexico and the United States ====
*[[Dry Borders-Sonoran Desert Biosphere Reserve Network]] is a transboundary conservation complex composed of Mexico's El Picante y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve and the United States' [[Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument]].<ref name=tbpa2007 />
*[[El Carmen-Big Bend Complex]] is a transboundary conservation complex composed of Mexico's Parque Nacional Canon de Santa Elena and Area Natural Protegida Maderas del Carmen, the United States' [[Big Bend National Park]], and Texas' [[Big Bend Ranch State Park]].<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/14/opinion/trump-wall-big-bend-park.html|title=Opinion - Forget Trump's Border Wall. Let's Build F.D.R.'s International Park.|first=Dan W.|last=Reicher|date=14 March 2019|access-date=14 March 2019|website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

==== Latin America ====
*[[Maya Tropical Forest Complex]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Belize, Guatemala and Mexico. It is partly composed of Guatemala's [[Sierra del Lacandón|Sierra Del Lacandon National Park]], [[Laguna del Tigre|Laguna del Tigre National Park]], [[El Mirador]] and [[Maya Biosphere Reserve]], Mexico's [[Calakmul Biosphere Reserve]], and Belize's [[Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area]].<ref name=tbpa2007 />
*[[Montecristo Trifinio Transboundary Protected Area Complex]] (also known as Trifinio Fraternidad) is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve on the border of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. It is composed of El Salvador's [[Montecristo National Park]], Guatemala's [[Trifinio Biosphere Reserve]], and Honduras' [[Montecristo Trifinio National Park]].<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oas.org/dsd/publications/Unit/oea29s/oea29s.pdf|title=Plan Trifinio - El Salvador - Guatemala - Honduras|website=Oas.org}}</ref>
* [[La Amistad International Park|Parque Internacional La Amistad]] is a UNESCO World Heritage Site on the border of [[Costa Rica]] and [[Panama]]. A bi-national Transboundary Protected Area Commission coordinates conservation efforts in the area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/205|title=Talamanca Range-La Amistad Reserves / La Amistad National Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-01}}</ref> 
* San Juan River Basin is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. It is composed of Costa Rica's [[Tortuguero National Park]] and [[Barra del Colorado Wildlife Refuge]], and Nicaragua's Reserva Biologica Indio Maiz and Reserva Natural Punta Gorda.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
* [[Volcán Tacaná Biosphere Reserve|Volcan Tacana]] is a transboundary [[Man and the Biosphere Programme|UNESCO biosphere reserve]] on the border of Guatemala and Mexico.<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/latin-america-and-the-caribbean/mexico/volcan-tacana/|title=Volcán Tacaná {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|website=Unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-03}}</ref>
* A transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex lies on the border of Costa Rica and Panama, and is composed of the [[Jairo Mora Sandoval Gandoca-Manzanillo Mixed Wildlife Refuge]] site in Costa Rica and the [[San San-Pond Sak]] site in Panama.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/783|title=Gandoca-Manzanillo {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/611|title=San San - Pond Sak {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref> The Global Transboundary Conservation Network includes this site as part of Parque International La Amsted in its 2007 global inventory.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
* A transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex lies on the on border of Belize and Guatemala, and is composed of Belize's Reserva de Usos Multiples Rio Sarstun and Guatemala's [[Sarstoon-Temash National Park|Sarstoon Temash National Park]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1667|title=Reserva de Usos Múltiples Río Sarstún {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1562|title=Sarstoon Temash National Park {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref>
* The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists additional TBPAs on the borders of:
*# Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico;
*# Guatemala and Honduras; and
*# Honduras and Nicaragua at two locations.<ref name=tbpa2007 />

[[File:Iguacu-002.jpg|thumb|[[Iguazu Falls]]--National Parks in Argentina and Brazil form a TBPA.]]

*[[Cordillera del Cóndor|Cordillera del Condor]] is a transboundary protected area on the border of [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]]. It is composed of Ecuador's [[Parque Nacional Podocarpus]] and Peru's Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tbpa.net/page.php?ndx=59|title=Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network|last=Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network|website=Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network|access-date=2018-01-31}}</ref> The countries agreed to create the protected area as part of a settlement to a border conflict in the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uvm.edu/ieds/node/154|title=Cordillera del Condor - Negotiating a Peace Park {{!}} Institute For Environmental Diplomacy And Security (IEDS)|website=Uvm.edu|access-date=2018-01-31}}</ref>
*[[Glaciares-Torres del Paine-O'Higgins Complex]] is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]]. It is composed of Chile's [[O'Higgins National Park]] and [[Torres del Paine National Park]] and Argentina's [[Los Glaciares National Park]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/85/|title=Torres del Paine and Bernardo O'Higgins National Parks, Region of Magallanes - UNESCO World Heritage Centre|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/145|title=Los Glaciares National Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-01-31}}</ref>
*[[Iguazu Falls|Iguacu-Iguazu]] is a transboundary World Heritage complex on the border of Argentina and Brazil. It is composed of Argentina's [[Iguazú National Park|Iguazu National Park]] and Brazil's [[Iguaçu National Park]].<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/355|title=Iguaçu National Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/303|title=Iguazu National Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-21}}</ref>
* [[Lake Titicaca|Lago Titicaca]] is a transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex on the border of Bolivia and Peru.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/881|title=Lago Titicaca {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/959|title=Lago Titicaca {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service|website=Rsis.ramsar.org|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref>
* The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists additional TBPAs on the borders of:
*# Colombia and Venezuela;
*# Brazil and Colombia;
*# Colombia, Ecuador and Peru;
*# Brazil and Venezuela;
*# French Guiana and Suriname;
*# Brazil and Suriname;
*# Brazil and Peru;
*# Bolivia and Brazil;
*# Bolivia, Brazil and Paraguay;
*# Argentina and Brazil;
*# Bolivia and Chile;
*# Argentina, Bolivia and Chile;
*# Argentina and Bolivia at two locations;
*# Bolivia and Paraguay; and 
*# Argentina and Chile at four locations.<ref name=tbpa2007 />

[[File:Reserva de la biosfera intercontinental del Mediterráneo.svg|thumb|[[Intercontinental Biosphere Reserve of the Mediterranean]] includes land in Morocco and Spain (light green), and part of the Strait of Gibraltar (dark blue).]]

=== Intercontinental TBPAs ===
*[[Great Altay]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Kazakhstan and Russia.<ref name=":3" />
*[[Intercontinental Biosphere Reserve of the Mediterranean]] is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere crossing the border of Morocco and Spain. It is a contiguous site, combining land in Morocco and Spain connected by the Strait of Gibraltar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/transboundary-biosphere-reserves/spain-morocco/intercontinental-br-of-the-mediterranean/|title=Intercontinental BR of the Mediterranean {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|website=Unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-12}}</ref>
* A transboundary UNESCO World Heritage complex is on the border of Colombia and Panama. It is composed primarily of Colombia's [[Los Katíos National Park|Los Katios National Park]] and Panama's [[Darién National Park|Darien National Park]].<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/711|title=Los Katíos National Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/159|title=Darien National Park|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2018-02-15}}</ref>

==Areas in the conceptual phase==
[[File:Ursus thibetanus 3 (Wroclaw zoo).JPG|thumb|The DMZ is a habitat for many threatened species on the Korean peninsula, including the black bear.]]
TBPA advocates by 2006 had identified additional sites for protection. Professor Saleem Ali of the University of Vermont noted that "numerous ecologically sensitive areas remain unprotected" and cites a 2006 "geographic information systems (GIS) study" that "found 104 transboundary wild areas involving 61 countries that are not formally part of any conservation park."<ref name=":4" /> Specific sites for proposed TBPAs include:

*[[Liuwa Plain National Park|Liuwa Plain]] – Kameia TFCA (Angola/Zambia)
*[[Niassa Reserve]] – [[Selous Game Reserve|Selous]] TFCA (Mozambique/Tanzania)
*[[Mnazi Bay-Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park|Mnazi Bay]] – Quirimbas Transfrontier Marine Conservation Area (Mozambique/Tanzania)
*The [[demilitarized zone|demilitarised zone]] between [[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea]] is a potential TBPA/peace park. Professor Salem Ali notes that the DMZ has "become a sanctuary for wildlife, since there is no development activity occurring in the area."<ref name=":4" /> Nelson Mandela traveled to South Korea to promote such an idea.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Transforming the Frontier: Peace Parks and the Politics of Neoliberal Conservation in Southern Africa|last=Buscher|first=Bram|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-8223-5404-8|pages=1, 53}}</ref> [[Ted Turner]] likewise traveled to the Korean peninsula to promote the idea in 2005.<ref name=":4" />
*The [[Siachen Glacier]] region between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] has been proposed as a peace park.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pool|first=Catherine|date=2006|title=Transboundary Protected Areas as a Solution to Border Issues|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nebanthro/23|journal=Nebraska Anthropologist|volume=23|pages=41–57}}</ref>
*A project for the Green Line Peace Park in [[Cyprus]], between the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Cypriot]] and Greek Cypriot territories, is being researched by Dr Anna Grichting at [[Harvard University]].{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}

As awareness of the importance of conserving the pristinity and ecology of [[Arctic]] region has increased,{{according to whom|date=August 2018}}<!-- this may be, but the prose should probably indicate who is putting forth the claim --> there has been a global call to declare the Arctic region as a global sanctuary/international peace park. The [[Save the Arctic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.peoplevsoil.org/en/savethearctic/|title=Save the Arctic - YOUR actions make a difference|website=Peoplevsoil.org|access-date=14 March 2019}}</ref> campaign by [[Greenpeace]], an environmental [[Nonprofit organization|nonprofit organisation]], has received online support from more than 5 million citizens from around the world.

==Areas with treaty signed==
*[[Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park]] (Botswana/South Africa), opened on 12 May 2000.
*[[Ai-Ais/Richtersveld Transfrontier Park]] (Namibia/South Africa) (see also [[Nama people]]: [[Nama people|Namaqua]] and [[Ai-Ais Hot Springs]]), signed on 17 August 2001.
*[[Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park]], signed on 10 November 2000.

==Memorandums of agreement signed==
*Limpopo-Shashe TFCA (Botswana/South Africa/Zimbabwe), originally signed on 22 June 2006. Now renamed, see: [[Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area]].
*[[Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area|Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation and Resource Area]] (Mozambique/South Africa/Eswatini)
*[[Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation Area|Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation and Development Area]] (Lesotho/South Africa), signed on 11 June 2001.
*[[Iona – Skeleton Coast Transfrontier Conservation Area]] ([[Angola]] and [[Namibia]]), signed on 3 May 2018.<ref name="moa">{{cite web |title=Angola and Namibia sign MoA for Iona-Skeleton Transfrontier Park |url=https://tfcaportal.org/angola-and-namibia-sign-moa-iona-skeleton-transfrontier-park |publisher=Transfrontier Conservation Areas |access-date=16 June 2024 |date=4 May 2018}}</ref>
*[[Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area]] (KAZA) ([[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]]), signed on 7 December 2006. This will be the world's largest peace park, covering areas in 5 different countries.
*Malawi – Zambia TFCA (Malawi/Zambia), signed on 13 August 2004.
*Chimanimani TFCA (Mozambique/Zimbabwe)

== Impacts on peace and conflict ==
Transboundary protected areas are also termed peace parks. They are supposed to facilitate cooperation and exchange between (adversary) countries, to improve livelihoods of local populations, to demonstrate the possibility of positive-sum interactions, and hence to support more peaceful international relations.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Peace Parks: Conservation and Conflict Resolution|last=Ali|first=Saleem H.|publisher=MIT Press|year=2007|isbn=9780262012355|location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> There are several cases documented in which trans-boundary conservation contributed to conflict resolution (although it was not the main driver), such as in the [[Virunga National Park|Virunga]] region between the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], [[Rwanda]] and [[Uganda]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Martin|first1=Adrian|last2=Rutagarama|first2=Eugene|last3=Cascão|first3=Ana|last4=Gray|first4=Maryke|last5=Chhotray|first5=Vasudha|date=September 2011|title=Understanding the co-existence of conflict and cooperation: Transboundary ecosystem management in the Virunga Massif|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=48|issue=5|pages=621–635|doi=10.1177/0022343311412410|s2cid=53334931 |issn=0022-3433|url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/37873/1/JPR2011Virunga.pdf}}</ref> around the [[Trifinio Fraternidad Transboundary Biosphere Reserve|Trifinio]] region between [[El Salvador]] and [[Honduras]],<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Ide|first=Tobias|date=May 2018|title=Does environmental peacemaking between states work? Insights on cooperative environmental agreements and reconciliation in international rivalries|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=55|issue=3|pages=351–365|doi=10.1177/0022343317750216|s2cid=117600202 |issn=0022-3433|url=https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/59912/ |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and in the [[Cordillera del Cóndor]] region between [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.adelphi.de/en/system/files/mediathek/bilder/us_503_-_carius_environmental_peacemaking_06-07-02.pdf|title=Environmental Peacebuilding: Environmental Cooperation as an Instrument of Crisis Prevention and Peacebuilding: Conditions for Success and Constraints|last=Carius|first=Alexander|publisher=adelphi|year=2006|location=Berlin}}</ref> According to a statistical analysis published in 2014, states that share a trans-boundary protected area are slightly less likely to engage with militarized disputes with each other. But the question remains whether the TBPA is a driver or consequence on better interstate relations in these cases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Barquet|first1=Karina|last2=Lujala|first2=Päivi|last3=Rød|first3=Jan Ketil|date=September 2014|title=Transboundary conservation and militarized interstate disputes|journal=Political Geography|volume=42|pages=1–11|doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.05.003}}</ref> A more recent analysis triangulates data from various sources to show that international environmental cooperation (in the form of TBPAs and water treaties) increases the likelihood for reconciliation between states in conflict. The effect is, however, modest and contingent on a number of context factors such as high levels of environmental attention, internal political stability, a tradition of environmental cooperation and already ongoing processes of reconciliation.<ref name=":6" />

However, a number of authors criticize that peace parks have a very limited impact on formal relations between states, but can accelerate conflicts on the local level, for instance by extending (authoritarian) state control, by prioritizing business and tourism over the interests of local populations, and by excluding local people from the protected areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duffy|first=Rosaleen|date=September 2001|title=Peace parks: The paradox of globalisation1|journal=Geopolitics|volume=6|issue=2|pages=1–26|doi=10.1080/14650040108407715|s2cid=144665048 |issn=1465-0045}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Büscher|first1=Bram|last2=Ramutsindela|first2=Maano|date=2015-12-24|journal=African Affairs|pages=adv058|doi=10.1093/afraf/adv058|issn=0001-9909|title=Green Violence: Rhino Poaching and the War to Save Southern Africa's Peace Parks}}</ref> TBPAs can also stimulate (low-level) international conflicts, for instance about the sharing of revenues or the presence of human populations in the parks.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van Amerom|first1=Marloes|last2=Büscher|first2=Bram|date=2005-06-16|title=Peace parks in Southern Africa: bringers of an African Renaissance?|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|volume=43|issue=2|pages=159–182|doi=10.1017/S0022278X05000790|issn=0022-278X|hdl=1871/21865|url=http://repub.eur.nl/pub/21698|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

== Massive Online Open Course on Peace Park Development and Management==
A Massive Online Open Course on Peace Park Development and Management was developed by the Secretariat of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (SCBD), its Peace and Biodiversity Dialogue Initiative in partnership with UNDP and the NBSAP Forum. This ''free'' three-week course offered in five languages: English, French, Spanish, Russian and Arabic. Financial support is provided by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity's Peace and Biodiversity Dialogue Initiative funded by the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Korea.

This course will:
*	offer a comprehensive guide on Peace Park establishment;  
*	teach participants to make a strong case for Peace Park development; 
*	develop the skills to effectively plan, establish and manage Peace Parks; 
*	address the challenges associated with the creation and management of these transboundary protected areas.

The course is designed for Peace Park development practitioners and environmental peacebuilding enthusiasts but is open to everyone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://learningfornature.org/courses/peace-park-development-and-management/|title=Peace Park Development and Management – Learning for Nature|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-25}}</ref> Participants must create an account on Learning for Nature before registering for the course.

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences}}
*[[Conservation area]]
*[[Habitat conservation]]
*[[Marine Protected Area]]
{{-}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline|Peace parks}}
*[http://www.peaceparks.org Peace Parks Foundation]
*[http://www.nps.gov/akso/beringia/index.htm Beringian Heritage International Park Program]
*[https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/205.pdf UNESCO La Amistad International Park overview] (PDF file)
*[http://www.biodiversitya-z.org/areas/32/ A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Transboundary Protected Areas]
*[http://www.waddensea-secretariat.org Trilateral Cooperation on the Protection of the Wadden Sea]

[[Category:Transboundary protected areas| ]]
[[Category:Peace parks| ]]
[[Category:Protected areas]]