Editing Transposing instrument

{{Short description|Musical instrument for which notated pitch differs from sounding pitch}}

[[File:Transposing examples.jpg|thumb|400px|right]]

A '''transposing instrument''' is a [[musical instrument]] for which music notation is not written at [[concert pitch]] (concert pitch is the pitch on a non-transposing instrument such as the piano). For example, playing a written [[middle C]] on a transposing instrument produces a pitch other than middle C; that sounding pitch identifies the [[interval (music)|interval]] of transposition when describing the instrument. Playing a written C on [[clarinet]] or [[soprano saxophone]] produces a concert B{{music|flat}} (i.e. B{{music|flat}} at concert pitch), so these are referred to as B{{music|flat}} instruments. Providing [[Transposition (music)|transposed]] music for these instruments is a convention of [[musical notation]]. The instruments do not transpose the music; rather, their music is written at a transposed pitch. Where chords are indicated for [[jazz improvisation|improvisation]] they are also written in the appropriate transposed form.

For some instruments, a written C sounds as a C but is in a different [[octave]]; these instruments are said to transpose "at the octave". Pitches on the [[double bass]] sound an octave lower than written, while those on the [[piccolo]] and [[celesta]] sound an octave higher, and those on the [[glockenspiel]] sound two octaves higher.

== Reasons for transposing ==
=== Ease of switching instruments ===
Some instruments are constructed in a variety of sizes, with the larger versions having a lower [[Range (music)|range]] than the smaller ones. Common examples are [[clarinets]] (the high E{{music|flat}} clarinet, soprano instruments in C, B{{music|flat}} and A, the alto in E{{music|flat}}, and the bass in B{{music|flat}}), [[flutes]] (the [[piccolo]], transposing at the octave, the standard concert-pitch flute, and the [[alto flute]] in G), [[saxophones]] (in several octaves in B{{music|flat}} and E{{music|flat}}), and [[trumpets]] (the common instrument in B{{music|flat}}, instruments in C, D and E{{music|flat}}, and the [[piccolo trumpet]] transposing at the octave). Music is often written in transposed form for these groups of instruments so that the [[Fingering (music)|fingerings]] correspond to the same written notes for any instrument in the family, even though the sounding pitches will differ. A musician who plays several instruments in a family can thus read music in the same way regardless of which particular instrument is being used.

Instruments that transpose this way are often said to be in a certain "key" (e.g., the "B{{music|flat}} clarinet" or "clarinet in B{{music|flat}}"). This refers to the concert pitch that is heard when a written C is played on the instrument in question. Playing a written C produces a concert B{{music|flat}} on a B{{music|flat}} clarinet, a concert A on an A clarinet, and a concert C on a C clarinet (this last example is a non-transposing instrument).

===Horn crooks===
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2015}}
Before [[brass instrument valve|valves]] were invented in the 19th century, [[Horn (instrument)|horns]] and [[Natural trumpet|trumpets]] could play only the notes of the [[harmonic series (music)|overtone series]] from a single [[fundamental frequency|fundamental]] pitch. (Exceptions included [[Slide (wind instrument)|slide-bearing]] versions such as the [[sackbut]] and finger-hole horns like the [[cornett]] and [[Serpent (instrument)|serpent]].) Beginning in the early 18th century, a system of [[crook (music)|crooks]] was devised in Germany, enabling this fundamental to be changed by inserting one of a set of crooks between the mouthpiece and the lead pipe of the instrument, increasing the total length of its sounding tube. As a result, all horn music was written as if for a fundamental pitch of C, but the crooks could make a single instrument a transposing instrument into almost any key.

Changing these lead-pipe crooks was time-consuming, and even keeping them from falling out while playing was a matter of some concern to the player, so changing crooks could take place only during substantial rests. Medial crooks, inserted in the central portion of the instrument, were an improvement devised in the middle of the 18th century, and they could also be made to function as a slide for tuning, or to change the pitch of the fundamental by a semitone or tone. The introduction of valves made this process unnecessary, though many players and composers found the tone quality of valved instruments inferior ([[Richard Wagner]] sometimes wrote horn parts for both natural and valved horns together in the same piece). F transposition became standard in the early 19th century, with the horn sounding a perfect fifth below written pitch in treble clef. In bass clef, composers differed in whether they expected the instruments to transpose down a fifth or up a fourth.

=== Reconciling pitch standards ===

In Germany during the Baroque period, instruments used for different purposes were often tuned to different pitch standards, called ''Chorton'' ("choir pitch") and ''Kammerton'' ("chamber [music] pitch"). When playing together in an ensemble, the music of some instruments would therefore be transposed to compensate. In many of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]'s cantatas, the organ part is notated a full step lower than the other instruments.<ref>{{cite book|author=Laurence Dreyfus|author-link=Laurence Dreyfus|title=Bach's Continuo Group|year=1987|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=0-674-06030-X|page=11}}</ref> See [[Concert pitch#Pitch inflation|pitch inflation]].

Some present day early-music ensembles combine instruments tuned to A415 with instruments tuned to [[A440 (pitch standard)|A440]]. Since these pitches are approximately a [[semitone]] apart, the music for one set of instruments may be transposed to match the pitch of the others. Modern builders of [[Basso continuo|continuo]] instruments sometimes include [[Organ console#Keyboards|moveable keyboards]] which can play with either pitch standard.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hpschd.nu/tech/kb/trans.html|title=CBH Global Harpsichord Technology|author=Carey Beebe Harpsichords Australia}}</ref> Some harpsichords are made with a mechanism that shifts the keyboard action right or left, causing each key to play the adjacent string. If A4 is tuned at A415, that key can then play either the A{{music|#}} at 440&nbsp;Hz or the A{{music|b}} at 392&nbsp;Hz. The top or bottom key on the instrument will not produce sound unless the builder has added extra strings to accommodate this transposition.

== Transposition at the octave ==
{{See also|Clef#Octave clefs}}
Some instruments have ranges that do not fit on the staff well when using one of the common clefs. In order to avoid the use of excessive [[ledger line]]s, music for these instruments may be written one, or even two, [[octaves]] away from concert pitch, using treble or bass clef. These instruments are said to "transpose at the octave"—their music is not written in a different [[key (music)|key]] from concert pitch instruments, but sound one or two octaves higher or lower than written.

[[Double bass]], [[bass guitar]], [[guitar]], and [[contrabassoon]] sound an octave lower than written. [[Piccolo]], [[xylophone]], [[celesta]], and some [[Recorder (musical instrument)|recorders]] ([[Sopranino recorder|sopranino]], [[soprano recorder|soprano]], [[bass recorder|bass]] and sometimes [[alto recorder|alto]]) sound an octave above the written note. [[Glockenspiel]], [[garklein recorder]], and [[crotales]] sound two octaves above the written note.

Most authorities include this type of notation in the definition of "transposing instruments",<ref>{{cite encyclopedia| title=[[Harvard Dictionary of Music]] |edition=second |editor-first=Willi | editor-last=Apel |editor-link=Willi Apel |year=1972 |contribution=Transposing Instruments}} According to this article, if an octave-transposing clef is used (with a small 8 above or below), the term "transposition" does not apply.</ref> although it is a special case in the sense that these instruments remain in the same key as non-transposing instruments.

== Mechanical and physical considerations ==
Many [[woodwind instrument]]s have one major scale whose execution involves lifting the fingers more or less sequentially from bottom to top. On [[flute]] and [[saxophone]], and in the second register of the [[clarinet]], this scale is notated as a C scale. This is not the case for [[oboe]] (where this scale is D) or [[bassoon]] (where it is F). The note written as C sounds as the note of the instrument's transposition: on an E{{music|flat}} alto saxophone, that note sounds as a concert E{{music|flat}}, while on an A clarinet, that note sounds as a concert A.

[[Brass instruments]], when played with no valves engaged (or, for [[trombone]]s, with the slide all the way in), play a series of notes that form the overtone series based on some fundamental pitch, e.g., the B{{music|flat}} [[trumpet]], when played with no valves engaged, can play the overtones based on B{{music|flat}}. Usually, that pitch is the note that indicates the transposition of the instrument. Trombones are an exception: while tenor and bass trombones are pitched in B{{music|flat}}, and the alto trombone is in E{{music|flat}}, they read at concert pitch. This convention is not followed in British Brass Band music, where tenor trombone is treated as a transposing instrument in B{{music|flat}}. [[French horn]] is treated as a transposing instrument in F even though many horns have two (or even three) different sets of tubing in different keys (the common double horn has tubing in F and B{{Music|flat}}).

In general, for these instruments there is some reason to consider a certain pitch the "home" note of an instrument, and that pitch is usually written as C for that instrument. The concert pitch of that note is what determines how we refer to the transposition of that instrument.

== Conductor's score ==
[[File:Der 100. Psalm Max Reger.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Sheet music of the full score for [[Max Reger]]'s {{lang|de|[[Der 100. Psalm]]}} for choir, orchestra and organ. Staves for voices and for most concert-pitch instruments show a key signature of D major. Clarinets ({{lang|de|2 Klarinetten in A}}) are shown with the appropriate transposition. French horns ({{lang|de|4 Hörner in F}}) are shown transposed, but without a key signature, while trumpets ({{lang|de|2 Trompeten in C}}) and timpani ({{lang|de|3 Pauken in A C D}}) are written at concert pitch without key signatures.]]

In [[full score]]s, music for transposing instruments is generally written in transposed form, just as in the players' parts. Since the beginning of the 20th century, some composers have written orchestral scores entirely in concert pitch, e.g. the score of [[Sergei Prokofiev]]'s [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Prokofiev)|Piano Concerto No. 1]] in D{{music|b}}.

== See also ==
* [[List of transposing instruments]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources==
*{{cite book|last=Kennan|first=Kent Wheeler|author-link=Kent Kennan|title=The Technique of Orchestration|edition=second|location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=1970|orig-year=1952|isbn=0-13-900316-9|ref=none}}
*{{cite book|last=Del Mar|first=Norman|author-link=Norman Del Mar|title=The Anatomy of the Orchestra|publisher=University of California Press|year=1981|isbn=0-520-04500-9|ref=none}}

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