Editing Ubykh language

{{Short description|Extinct Northwest Caucasian language}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=December 2009}}
{{Technical|date=September 2022}}
}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Ubykh
| nativename       = {{lang|uby|tuex̂ıbze}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|/tʷɜxɨbzɜ/}}
| states           = [[Circassia]]
| region           = [[Ubykhia]] ([[Sochi]])
| ethnicity        = [[Ubykh people|Ubykh]] 
| extinct          = 7 October 1992, with the death of [[Tevfik Esenç]]|
| familycolor      = Caucasian
| fam1             = [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]]
| script           = Unwritten, but provisional orthographies have been developed
| iso3             = uby
| glotto           = ubyk1235
| glottorefname    = Ubykh
| map              = File:Northwest Caucasian languages map.png
| mapcaption       = {{legend|#FFC173|Ubykh (extinct)}}
| map2             = Lang Status 01-EX.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|Ubykh is classified as Extinct according to the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}<ref>{{cite report |title=Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger |publisher=UNESCO |edition=3rd |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026 |date=2010 |page=31}}</ref>
| notice           = IPA
}}

'''Ubykh'''{{Efn|{{langx|tr|Vubıh}}}} is an extinct [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian language]] once spoken by the [[Ubykh people|Ubykh]] people, an ethnic group of [[Circassians|Circassian]] nation who originally inhabited the eastern coast of the [[Black Sea]] before being deported ''en masse'' to the [[Ottoman Empire]] during the [[Circassian genocide]].<ref name=Koerner1998>{{cite book |author-first=E. F. K. |author-last=Koerner |title=First Person Singular III: Autobiographies by North American Scholars in the Language Sciences |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-SYou4fhWUgC&pg=PA33 |date=1 January 1998 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-4576-2 |page=33 }}</ref>

The Ubykh language is [[ergative–absolutive language|ergative]] and [[polysynthetic language|polysynthetic]], with a high degree of [[agglutination]], with [[polypersonal agreement|polypersonal]] verbal agreement and a very large number of distinct [[consonant]]s but only two [[phoneme|phonemically distinct]] [[vowel]]s. With around eighty consonants, it has one of the largest inventories of consonants in the world,<ref>{{cite book|author-first=Charles |author-last=King |title=The Ghost of Freedom |date=2008 |pages=15}}</ref> and the largest number for any language without [[click consonant|clicks]]. 

The name Ubykh is derived from {{lang|ady|Убых}} ({{IPA|/wɨbɨx/}}), from {{lang|ady|Убыхыбзэ}}, its name in the [[Adyghe language]]. It is known in [[linguistics|linguistic]] literature by many names: variants of Ubykh, such as ''Ubikh'', {{lang|fr|Oubykh}} ([[French language|French]]); and its [[German language|German]]ised variant {{lang|de|Päkhy}} (from Ubykh {{IPA|/tʷɜχɨ/}}).

==Major features==
Ubykh is distinguished by the following features, some of which are shared with other Northwest Caucasian languages:

* It is [[ergative–absolutive language|ergative]], making no syntactic distinction between the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] of an [[intransitive verb|intransitive]] sentence and the [[direct object]] of a [[transitive verb|transitive]] sentence. [[Split ergativity]] plays only a small part, if at all.
* It is highly [[Agglutination|agglutinating]] and [[Polysynthetic language|polysynthetic]], using mainly monosyllabic or bisyllabic roots, but with single [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] words sometimes reaching nine or more syllables in length: {{IPA|/ɜχʲɜzbɜtɕʼɜʁɜwdɨtʷɐjlɜfɜqʼɜjtʼmɜdɜχ/}} ('if only you had not been able to make him take [it] all out from under me again for them'). [[Affix]]es rarely fuse in any way.
* It has a simple [[noun|nominal]] system, contrasting just three [[noun case]]s, and not always marking [[grammatical number]] in the direct case.
* Its system of [[Grammatical conjugation#Verbal agreement|verbal agreement]] is quite complex. English verbs must agree only with the subject; Ubykh verbs must agree with the subject, the direct object and the [[indirect object]], and [[benefactive]] objects must also be marked in the verb.
* It is [[phonology|phonologically]] complex as well, with 84 distinct [[consonant]]s (four of which, however, appear only in [[loan word]]s). It has three phonemic vowels [{{IPA link|ɐ}} {{IPA link|ɜ}} {{IPA link|ɨ}}] which correspond to Dumézil's [aa a ə] respectively and this is evident in the minimal triplet of {{IPA|/ɐsʃɨn/}} ('I milk X'), {{IPA|/ɐsʃɜn/}} ('I reap X'), and {{IPA|/ɐsʃɐn/}} ('I milk them; I reap them').{{sfn|Fenwick|2011|p=25}}

== Phonology ==
{{Main|Ubykh phonology}}
Ubykh has 84 phonemic consonants, a record high amongst languages without [[click consonants]], but only 3 phonemic vowels.<ref name="fenwick" /> Four of these consonants are found only in loanwords and [[onomatopoeiae]]. There are nine basic places of articulation for the consonants and extensive use of secondary articulation, such that Ubykh has 20 different [[Uvular consonant|uvular]] phonemes. Ubykh distinguishes three types of [[postalveolar consonant]]s: apical, laminal, and laminal closed. Regarding the vowels, since there are only three phonemic vowels, there is a great deal of allophony.

==Grammar==
{{Main|Ubykh grammar}}

=== Morphosyntax ===

Ubykh is agglutinative and polysynthetic: {{IPA|/ʃɨkʲʼɐjɨfɜnɜmɨt/}} ('we will not be able to go back'), {{IPA|/ɐwqʼɜqʼɜjtʼbɜ/}} ('if you had said it'). It is often extremely concise in its word forms.

The boundaries between nouns and verbs is somewhat blurred. Any noun can be used as the root of a stative verb ({{IPA|/mɨzɨ/}} 'child', {{IPA|/sɨmɨzɨjtʼ/}} 'I was a child'), and many verb roots can become nouns simply by the use of noun affixes ({{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} 'to say', {{IPA|/sɨqʼɜ/}} 'what I say').<ref>Dumézil, G. 1975 Le verbe oubykh: études descriptives et comparatives (The Ubykh Verb: Descriptive and Comparative Studies). Paris: Imprimerie Nationale</ref><ref>Hewitt, B. G. 2005 North-West Caucasian. Lingua 115: 91-145.</ref>

==== Nouns ====
The noun system in Ubykh is quite simple. It has three main noun cases (the oblique-ergative case may be two homophonous cases with differing function, thus presenting four cases in total):
* direct or [[absolutive case]], marked with the bare [[root (linguistics)|root]]; this indicates the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] of an intransitive sentence and the [[direct object]] of a transitive sentence (e.g. {{IPA|/tɨt/}} 'a man')
* oblique-[[ergative case]], marked in -{{IPA|/n/}}; this indicates either the subject of a [[transitive verb|transitive]] sentence, targets of [[preverb]]s, or [[indirect object]]s which do not take any other suffixes ({{IPA|/mɨzɨn/}} '(to) a child')
* [[locative case]], marked in -{{IPA|/ʁɜ/}}, which is the equivalent of English ''in'', ''on'' or ''at''.
There are X other cases that exist in Ubykh too:

* [[instrumental case]] (-{{IPA|/ɜwn(ɨ)/}}) was also treated as a case in Dumézil (1975). 
* [[Instrumental-comitative case|instrumental-comitative]] case (-{{IPA|/ɐlɜ/}}).
* Another pair of [[postposition]]s, -{{IPA|/lɐq/}} ('to[wards]') and -{{IPA|/ʁɐfɜ/}} ('for'), have been noted as synthetic [[dative]]s (e.g. {{IPA|/ɜχʲɨlɐq ɜstʷɜdɜw/}} 'I will send it to the prince'), but their status as cases is also best discounted.

Nouns do not distinguish [[grammatical gender]]. The [[definite article]] is {{IPA|/ɐ/}} (e.g. {{IPA|/ɐtɨt/}} 'the man'). There is no [[indefinite article]] directly equivalent to the English ''a'' or ''an'', but {{IPA|/zɜ/}}-(root)-{{IPA|/ɡʷɜrɜ/}} (literally 'one'-(root)-'certain') translates French ''un'' : e.g. {{IPA|/zɜnɜjnʃʷɡʷɜrɜ/}} ('a certain young man').

[[Grammatical number|Number]] is only marked on the noun in the ergative case, with -{{IPA|/nɜ/}}. The number marking of the absolutive argument is either by [[suppletion|suppletive]] verb roots (e.g. {{IPA|/ɐkʷɨn blɜs/}} 'he is in the car' vs. {{IPA|/ɐkʷɨn blɜʒʷɜ/}} 'they are in the car') or by verb suffixes: {{IPA|/ɐkʲʼɜn/}} ('he goes'), {{IPA|/ɐkʲʼɐn/}} ('they go'). The [[grammatical person|second person]] [[plural]] prefix {{IPA|/ɕʷ/}}- triggers this plural suffix regardless of whether that prefix represents the ergative, the absolutive, or an [[oblique argument]]: 
*Absolutive: {{IPA|/ɕʷɜstʷɐn/}} ('I give you all to him')
*Oblique: {{IPA|/sɨɕʷɨntʷɐn/}} ('he gives me to you all')
*Ergative: {{IPA|/ɐsɨɕʷtʷɐn/}} ('you all give it/them to me')
Note that, in this last sentence, the plurality of ''it'' ({{IPA|/ɐ/}}-) is obscured; the meaning can be either 'You all give ''it'' to me' or 'You all give ''them'' to me'.

[[Adjective]]s, in most cases, are simply suffixed to the noun: {{IPA|/tʃɨbʒɨjɜ/}} ('pepper') with {{IPA|/pɬɨ/}} ('red') becomes {{IPA|/tʃɨbʒɨjɜpɬɨ/}} ('red pepper'). Adjectives do not [[declension|decline]].

[[Postposition]]s are rare; most locative [[semantics|semantic]] functions, as well as some non-local ones, are provided with [[preverb]]al elements: {{IPA|/ɐsχʲɜwtxqʼɜ/}} ('you wrote it for me'). However, there are a few postpositions: {{IPA|/sɨʁʷɜ sɨɡʲɐtɕʼ/}} ('like me'), {{IPA|/ɐχʲɨlɐq/}} ('near the prince').

==== Pronouns ====
Free pronouns in all North-West Caucasian languages lack an ergative-absolutive distinction.<ref name="fenwick" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Free personal pronouns
|
!
!First person
!Second person
!Third person
|-
! rowspan="2" |Singular
!Standard
|{{IPA|/s(ɨ)ʁʷɜ/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/(w(ɨ))ʁʷɜ/}}(joc. {{IPA|/χɜʁʷɜ/}})
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ɐʁʷɜ/}}
|-
!AB
|{{IPA|/(s)χɜ/}}
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plural
!Standard
|{{IPA|/ʃɨʁʷɜɬɜ/}}
|{{IPA|/ɕʷɨʁʷɜɬɜ/}}
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/ɐʁʷɜɬɜ/}}
|-
!Tevfik Esenç
|{{IPA|/ʃɜɬɜ/}}
|{{IPA|/ɕʷɜɬɜ/}}
|-
!Osman Güngür
|{{IPA|/ʃɨʁʷɜ/}}
|{{IPA|/ɕʷɨʁʷɜ/}}
|}

===== Possession =====

{| class="wikitable"
|+Possessive pronouns
!
! rowspan="2" |First person
! colspan="2" |Second person
! rowspan="2" |Third person
|-
!
!Normal
!Jocular
|-
!Singular
|{{IPA|/sɨ/}}-
|{{IPA|/wɨ/}}-
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/χɜ/}}-
|{{IPA|/ʁɜ/}}-
|-
!Plural
|{{IPA|/ʃɨ/}}-
|{{IPA|/ɕʷɨ/}}-
|{{IPA|/ɐʁɜ/}}-
|}

Possessed nouns have their plurality marked with the affix {{IPA|/-ɜw-/}}.

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|italics2=no|italics3=yes
|/ʃɜwtʃɨ/
|/ʃ(ɨ)-ɜw-tʃɨ/
|1.POSS-PL-horse
|Our horses}}

==== Verbs ====

A [[past tense|past]]{{ndash}}[[present tense|present]]{{ndash}}[[future tense|future]] distinction of verb [[Grammatical tense|tense]] exists (the suffixes -{{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} and -{{IPA|/ɜwt/}} represent past and future) and an [[imperfective aspect]] suffix is also found (-{{IPA|/jtʼ/}}, which can combine with tense suffixes). Dynamic and stative verbs are contrasted, as in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and verbs have several [[gerund|nominal]] forms. Morphological [[causative]]s are not uncommon. The conjunctions {{IPA|/ɡʲɨ/}} ('and') and {{IPA|/ɡʲɨlɜ/}} ('but') are usually given with verb suffixes, but there is also a free particle corresponding to each:
*-{{IPA|/ɡʲɨ/}} 'and' (free particle {{IPA|/ve/}}, borrowed from Arabic);
*-{{IPA|/ɡʲɨlɜ/}} 'but' (free particle {{IPA|/ɜʁʷɜ/}})

Pronominal [[benefactive]]s are also part of the verbal complex, marked with the preverb {{IPA|/χʲɜ/}}-, but a benefactive cannot normally appear on a verb that has three agreement prefixes already.

[[Grammatical gender|Gender]] only appears as part of the [[grammatical person|second person]] paradigm, and then only at the speaker's discretion. The feminine second person index is {{IPA|/χɜ/}}-, which behaves like other pronominal prefixes: {{IPA|/wɨsχʲɜntʷɨn/}} ('he gives [it] to you [normal; gender-neutral] for me'), but compare {{IPA|/χɜsχʲɜntʷɨn/}} 'he gives [it] to you [feminine] for me').

===== Agreement =====
Oblique 1 markers are limited to marking the agreement of a noun before a relational preverb and Oblique 2 markers are used for not only marking agreement with local and directional preverbs but also the simple oblique, or dative, arguments.<ref name="fenwick" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Pronominal Agreement Markers
|
|
!Absolutive
!Oblique (1 and 2)
!Ergative
|-
! rowspan="2" |First person
!sg.
|{{IPA|/s(ɨ)/-}}
|{{IPA|/s(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/z/}}
|{{IPA|/s(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/z/}}
|-
!pl.
|{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)/-}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/ʒ/-}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/ʒ/-}}
|-
! rowspan="3" |Second person
!sg.
|{{IPA|/wɨ/-}}
|{{IPA|/w(ɨ)/-}}
|{{IPA|/w(ɨ)/-}}
|-
!pl.
|{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)/-}}
|{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/ʑʷ(ɨ)/- }}
|{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/ʑʷ(ɨ)/- }}
|-
!sg. (joc., arc.)
|{{IPA|/χɜ/-}}
|{{IPA|/χɜ/-}}
|{{IPA|/χɜ/-}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |Third person
!sg.
|{{IPA|/ɐ/-, /jɨ/-, /ɨ/-, /Ø/-}}
|{{IPA|/Ø/-}}
|{{IPA|n(ɨ)/- /Ø/-}}
|-
!pl.
|{{IPA|/ɐ/-, /jɨ/-, /Ø/-}}
|{{IPA|/ɐ/-}}
|{{IPA|/ɐ/-, /nɐ/-}}
|}
The second-person {{IPA|/χɜ/-}} is an archaic pronoun used to indicate that the person being referred to is a female, or heckling the speaker in some way.

===== Dynamic verb conjugation =====
Dynamic Ubykh verbs are split up in two groups: Group I which contain the simple tenses and Group II which contain derived counterpart tenses. Only the Karaclar dialect uses the progressive tense and the plural is unknown.

The singular-plural distinction is used when the subject, the ergative, is singular or plural.

Square brackets indicate elided vowels; parenthesis indicate optional parts of the stem; and the colon indicates the boundary of a morpheme.<ref name="fenwick" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Group I
|
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!Simple Past
| -{{IPA|/qʼɜ/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/}}
|-
!Mirative Past
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jtʼ/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jɬ(ɜ)/}}
|-
!Present
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɐ-n/}}
|-
!Future I
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜw/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n[ɜ]-ɜw/}}
|-
!Future II
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜwːt/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/}}
|-
!(Progressive)
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜwɨːn/}}
|?
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Group II
|
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!Pluperfect
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/qʼɜːjtʼ/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/qʼɜːjɬ(ɜ)/}} ~ -/qʼɜːnɜːjtʼ/
|-
!Imperfect
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/nɜːtjʼ/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɐ-nɜːjɬ(ɜ)/}}
|-
!Conditional I
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜwɨːjtʼ/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n[ɜ]-ɜwɨːjɬ(ɜ)/}}
|-
!Conditional II
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜwːtʷːqʼɜ/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/(n[ɜ]-)ɜwːtʷːqʼɜ(-n)/}}
|}

====== Simple past ======
The verbs in the simple past tense are conjugated with -{{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} in the singular and <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/}} in the plural.

Examples:

* {{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} - to say → {{IPA|/ɐ-qʼɜ-qʼɜ/}} (s)he said
* {{IPA|/fɨ/}} - to eat → {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ/}} (s)he ate
* {{IPA|/tɕʼɜ/}} - to know → {{IPA|/ɐ-tɕʼɜ-qʼɜ/}} (s)he knew
* {{IPA|/kʲʼɜ/}} - to go → {{IPA|/ɐ-kʲʼɜ-qʼɜ/}} (s)he went

{| class="wikitable"
!Plurality
!Person
!Ubykh
!Meaning
|-
! rowspan="3" |Singular
!First-person
|{{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ/}}
|I ate
|-
!Second-person
|{{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-qʼɜ/}}
|you ate
|-
!Third-person
|{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ/}}
|(s)he ate
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plural
!First-person
|{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/}}
|we ate
|-
!Second-person
|{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/}}
|you (all) ate
|-
!Third-person
|{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/}}
|they ate
|}

====== Mirative past ======
The verbs in the mirative past tense are conjugated with <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jtʼ/}} in the singular and <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jɬ(ɜ)/}} in the plural.

Examples:

* {{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} - to say → {{IPA|/ɐ-qʼɜ-jtʼ/}} (s)he said apparently
* {{IPA|/fɨ/}} - to eat → {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-jtʼ/}} (s)he ate apparently
* {{IPA|/tɕʼɜ/}} - to know → {{IPA|/ɐ-tɕʼɜ-jtʼ/}} (s)he knew apparently
* {{IPA|/kʲʼɜ/}} - to go → {{IPA|/ɐ-kʲʼɜ-jtʼ/}} (s)he went apparently

{| class="wikitable"
!Plurality
!Person
!Ubykh
!Meaning
|-
! rowspan="3" |Singular
!First-person
|{{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-jtʼ/}}
|I ate apparently
|-
!Second-person
|{{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-jtʼ/}}
|you ate apparently
|-
!Third-person
|{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-jtʼ/}}
|(s)he ate apparently
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plural
!First-person
|{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/}}
|we ate apparently
|-
!Second-person
|{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/}}
|you (all) ate apparently
|-
!Third-person
|{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/}}
|they ate apparently
|}

====== Present ======
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n/}} in the singular and <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɐ-n/}} in the plural.

Examples:

* {{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} - to say → {{IPA|/ɐ-qʼɜ-n/}} (s)he says
* {{IPA|/fɨ/}} - to eat → {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n/}} (s)he eats
* {{IPA|/tɕʼɜ/}} - to know → {{IPA|/ɐ-tɕʼɜ-n/}} (s)he knows 
* {{IPA|/kʲʼɜ/}} - to go → {{IPA|/ɐ-kʲʼɜ-n/}} (s)he goes

{| class="wikitable"
!Plurality
!Person
!Ubykh
!Meaning
|-
! rowspan="3" |Singular
!First-person
|{{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-n/}}
|I eat
|-
!Second-person
|{{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-n/}}
|you eat
|-
!Third-person
|{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n/}}
|(s)he eats 
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plural
!First-person
|{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/}}
|we eat 
|-
!Second-person
|{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/}}
|you (all) eat 
|-
!Third-person
|{{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɐ-n/}}
|they eat 
|}

====== Future I ======
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜw/}} in the singular and <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} in the plural. It conveys a sense of certainty, immediacy, obligation, or intentionality.

Examples:

* {{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} - to say → {{IPA|/ɐ-qʼ-ɜw/}} (s)he certainly will say
* {{IPA|/fɨ/}} - to eat → {{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɜw/}} (s)he certainly will eat
* {{IPA|/tɕʼɜ/}} - to know → {{IPA|/ɐ-tɕʼ-ɜw/}} (s)he certainly will know 
* {{IPA|/kʲʼɜ/}} - to go → {{IPA|/ɐ-kʲʼ-ɜw/}} (s)he certainly will go

{| class="wikitable"
!Plurality
!Person
!Ubykh
!Meaning
|-
! rowspan="3" |Singular
!First-person
|{{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}}
|I certainly will eat
|-
!Second-person
|{{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}}
|you certainly will eat
|-
!Third-person
|{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}}
|(s)he certainly will eat 
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plural
!First-person
|{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}}
|we certainly will eat 
|-
!Second-person
|{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}}
|you (all) certainly will eat 
|-
!Third-person
|{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}}
|they certainly will eat 
|}

====== Future II ======
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜwːt/}} in the singular and <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/}} in the plural. It conveys a generic sense of the future as well as an exhortative sense such as: {{IPA|/ʃɨ-kʲʼɜ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} (let's go!).

Examples:

* {{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} - to say → {{IPA|/ɐ-qʼ-ɜwːt/}} (s)he will say
* {{IPA|/fɨ/}} - to eat → {{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɜwːt/}} (s)he will eat
* {{IPA|/tɕʼɜ/}} - to know → {{IPA|/ɐ-tɕʼ-ɜwːt/}} (s)he will know 
* {{IPA|/kʲʼɜ/}} - to go → {{IPA|/ɐ-kʲʼ-ɜwːt/}} (s)he will go

{| class="wikitable"
!Plurality
!Person
!Ubykh
!Meaning
|-
! rowspan="3" |Singular
!First-person
|{{IPA|/s(ɨ)-f-ɜwːt/}}
|I will eat
|-
!Second-person
|{{IPA|/wɨ-f-ɜwːt/}}
|you will eat
|-
!Third-person
|{{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɜwːt/}}
|(s)he will eat 
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plural
!First-person
|{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/}}
|we will eat 
|-
!Second-person
|{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/}}
|you (all) will eat 
|-
!Third-person
|{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/}}
|they will eat 
|}

===== Static verb conjugation =====
In all dialects and speakers, only two static tenses exist: present and past.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!Present
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/Ø/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n(ɜ)/}}
|-
!Past
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jtʼ/}}
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jɬ(ɜ)/}}
|}

===== Aspect =====
There are five basic aspects that exist besides the aspects that exist within the Ubykh tense system. They are: habitual, iterative, exhaustive, excessive, and potential.

A speaker may combine one of these aspects with another to convey more complex aspects in conjunction with the tenses.<ref name="fenwick" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!habitual
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɡʲɜ/}}
|-
!iterative
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɐj(ɨ)/}}
|-
!exhaustive
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/lɜ/}}
|-
!excessive
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/tɕʷɜ/}}
|-
!potential
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/fɜ/}}
|}

A few meanings covered in [[English language|English]] by [[adverb]]s or [[auxiliary verb]]s are given in Ubykh by verb suffixes:
* {{IPA|/ɐsfɨfɜn/}} ('I can eat it') - {{IPA|/ɐzdʑʷɜfɜn/}} ('I can drink it')
* {{IPA|/ɐsfɨɡʲɜn/}} ('I eat it all the time') - {{IPA|/ɐzdʑʷɜɡʲɜn/}} ('I drink it all the time')
* {{IPA|/ɐsfɨlɜn/}} ('I am eating it all up') - {{IPA|/ɐzdʑʷɜlɜn/}} ('I am drinking it all up')
* {{IPA|/ɐsfɨtɕʷɜn/}} ('I eat it too much') - {{IPA|/ɐzdʑʷɜtɕʷɜn/}} ('I drink it too much')
* {{IPA|/ɐsfɐjɨn/}} ('I eat it again') - {{IPA|/ɐzdʑʷɐjɨn/}} ('I drink it again')

{| class="wikitable"
|+example of Ubykh verbal aspects
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | First person
! colspan="2" | Second person
! colspan="2" | Third person
|-
! {{small|singular}} !! {{small|plural}}
! {{small|singular}} !! {{small|plural}}
! {{small|singular}} !! {{small|plural}}
|-
! simple
| {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɐ-n/}}
|-
! habitual
| {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-ɡʲɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɡʲ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-ɡʲɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-ɡʲ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-ɡʲɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-ɡʲ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
|-
! iterative
| {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-f-ɐj(ɨ)-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐj(ɨ)-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/wɨ-f-ɐj(ɨ)-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐj(ɨ)-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɐj(ɨ)-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɐj(ɨ)-ɐ-n/}}
|-
! exhaustive
| {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-lɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-l[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-lɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-l[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-lɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-l[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
|-
! excessive
| {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-tɕʷɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-tɕʷ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-tɕʷɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-tɕʷ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-tɕʷɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-tɕʷ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
|-
! potential
| {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-fɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-f[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-fɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-f[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-fɜ-n/}}
| {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-f[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}}
|}

==== Questions ====
[[Question]]s may be marked grammatically, using verb suffixes or prefixes:

*Yes{{ndash}}no questions with -{{IPA|/ɕ/}}: {{IPA|/wɜnɜ ɐwbjɜqʼɜɕ/}}? ('did you see that?')
*Complex questions with -{{IPA|/j/}}: {{IPA|/sɐkʲʼɜ wɨpʼtsʼɜj/}}? ('what is your name?')

Other types of questions, involving the pronouns 'where' and 'what', may also be marked only in the verbal complex: {{IPA|/mɐwkʲʼɜnɨj/}} ('where are you going?'), {{IPA|/sɐwqʼɜqʼɜjtʼɨj/}} ('what had you said?').

==== Preverbs and determinants ====
Many local, prepositional, and other functions are provided by [[preverb]]al elements providing a large series of [[applicative voice|applicative]]s, and here Ubykh shows remarkable complexity. Two main types of preverbal elements exist: determinants and preverbs. The number of preverbs is limited, and mainly show [[Location (geography)|location]] and [[Direction (geometry, geography)|direction]]. The number of determinants is also limited, but the class is more [[open class word|open]]; some determinant prefixes include {{IPA|/tʃɜ/}}- ('with regard to a horse') and {{IPA|/ɬɜ/}}- ('with regard to the foot or base of an object').

For simple locations, there are a number of possibilities that can be encoded with preverbs, including (but not limited to):
* above and touching
* above and not touching
* below and touching
* below and not touching
* at the side of
* through a space
* through solid matter
* on a flat horizontal surface
* on a non-horizontal or vertical surface
* in a homogeneous mass
* towards
* in an upward direction
* in a downward direction
* into a tubular space
* into an enclosed space
There is also a separate directional preverb meaning 'towards the speaker': {{IPA|/j/}}-, which occupies a separate slot in the verbal complex. However, preverbs can have meanings that would take up entire phrases in English. The preverb {{IPA|/jtɕʷʼɐ/}}- signifies 'on the earth' or 'in the earth', for instance: {{IPA|/ʁɜdjɜ ɐjtɕʷʼɐnɐɬqʼɜ/}} ('they buried his body'; literally, "they put his body in the earth"). Even more narrowly, the preverb {{IPA|/fɐ/}}- signifies that an action is done out of, into or with regard to a fire: {{IPA|/ɐmdʒɜn zɜtʃɨtʃɜqʲɜ fɐstχʷɨn/}} ('I take a brand out of the fire').

== Orthography ==
Writing systems for the Ubykh language have been proposed,<ref name="fenwick">{{cite book|last=Fenwick|first=R. S. H.|title=A Grammar of Ubykh|year=2011|publisher=Lincom Europa|location=Munich}}</ref> but there has never been a standard written form. However, Fenwick gives a guide for their "practical Ubykh orthography", intended to be typeable on a Turkish computer keyboard, which is shown below:{{sfn|Fenwick|2011|pp=210-211}}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+Practical Ubykh Orthography
!IPA
!Orthography
!IPA
!Orthography
!IPA
!Orthography
!IPA
!Orthography
|-
|{{IPA|[ɐ]}}
|a
|{{IPA|[z]}}
|z
|{{IPA|[tʃʼ]}}
|ç'
|{{IPA|[qʼ]}}
|q'
|-
|{{IPA|[ɜ]}}
|e
|{{IPA|[s]}}
|s
|{{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|j
|{{IPA|[ʁ]}}
|ğ
|-
|{{IPA|[ɨ]}}
|ı
|{{IPA|[r]}}
|r
|{{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|ş
|{{IPA|[χ]}}
|x
|-
|{{IPA|[b]}}
|b
|{{IPA|[n]}}
|n
|{{IPA|[ʒʷ]}}
|ju
|{{IPA|[qʲ]}}
|qi
|-
|{{IPA|[p]}}
|p
|{{IPA|[l]}}
|l
|{{IPA|[ʃʷ]}}
|şu
|{{IPA|[qʲʼ]}}
|q'i
|-
|{{IPA|[pʼ]}}
|p'
|{{IPA|[ɬ]}}
|lh
|{{IPA|[ɖʐ]}}
|cr
|{{IPA|[ʁʲ]}}
|ği
|-
|{{IPA|[v]}}
|v
|{{IPA|[ɬʼ]}}
|l'h
|{{IPA|[ʈʂ]}}
|çr
|{{IPA|[χʲ]}}
|xi
|-
|{{IPA|[f]}}
|f
|{{IPA|[dʷ]}}
|du
|{{IPA|[ʈʂʼ]}}
|ç'r
|{{IPA|[qʷ]}}
|qu
|-
|{{IPA|[w]}}
|w
|{{IPA|[tʷ]}}
|tu
|{{IPA|[j]}}
|y
|{{IPA|[qʷʼ]}}
|q'u
|-
|{{IPA|[m]}}
|m
|{{IPA|[tʷʼ]}}
|t'u
|{{IPA|[ɡ]}}
|g
|{{IPA|[ʁʷ]}}
|ğu
|-
|{{IPA|[bˤ]}}
|bh
|{{IPA|[dʑ]}}
|ci
|{{IPA|[k]}}
|k
|{{IPA|[χʷ]}}
|xu
|-
|{{IPA|[pˤ]}}
|ph
|{{IPA|[tɕ]}}
|çi
|{{IPA|[kʼ]}}
|k'
|{{IPA|[qˤ]}}
|qh
|-
|{{IPA|[pˤʼ]}}
|p'h
|{{IPA|[tɕʼ]}}
|ç'i
|{{IPA|[ɣ]}}
|ĝ
|{{IPA|[qˤʼ]}}
|q'h
|-
|{{IPA|[vˤ]}}
|vh
|{{IPA|[ʑ]}}
|ji
|{{IPA|[x]}}
|x̂
|{{IPA|[ʁˤ]}}
|ğh
|-
|{{IPA|[wˤ]}}
|wh
|{{IPA|[ɕ]}}
|şi
|{{IPA|[ɡʲ]}}
|gi
|{{IPA|[χˤ]}}
|xh
|-
|{{IPA|[mˤ]}}
|mh
|{{IPA|[dʑʷ]}}
|cü
|{{IPA|[kʲ]}}
|ki
|{{IPA|[qʷˤ]}}
|qö
|-
|{{IPA|[d]}}
|d
|{{IPA|[tɕʷ]}}
|çü
|{{IPA|[kʲʼ]}}
|k'i
|{{IPA|[qʷˤʼ]}}
|q'ö
|-
|{{IPA|[t]}}
|t
|{{IPA|[tɕʷʼ]}}
|ç'ü
|{{IPA|[ɡʷ]}}
|gu
|{{IPA|[ʁʷˤ]}}
|ğö
|-
|{{IPA|[tʼ]}}
|t'
|{{IPA|[ʑʷ]}}
|jü
|{{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|ku
|{{IPA|[χʷˤ]}}
|xö
|-
|{{IPA|[dz]}}
|dz
|{{IPA|[ɕʷ]}}
|şü
|{{IPA|[kʷʼ]}}
|k'u
|{{IPA|[h]}}
|h
|-
|{{IPA|[ts]}}
|ts
|{{IPA|[dʒ]}}
|c
|{{IPA|[xʷ]}}
|x̂u
|{{IPA|[ʐ]}}
|jr
|-
|{{IPA|[tsʼ]}}
|ts'
|{{IPA|[tʃ]}}
|ç
|{{IPA|[q]}}
|q
|{{IPA|[ʂ]}}
|şr
|}

== Lexicon ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2020}}

=== Native vocabulary ===
Ubykh [[syllable]]s have a strong tendency to be CV, although VC and CVC also exist. [[Consonant cluster]]s are not as large as in Abzhywa [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] or in [[Georgian language|Georgian]], rarely being larger than two terms. Three-term clusters exist in two words - {{IPA|/ndʁɜ/}} ({{Gloss|sun}}) and {{IPA|/pstɜ/}} ({{Gloss|to swell up}}),{{sfn|Fenwick|2011|p=27}} but the latter is a loan from Adyghe, and the former more often pronounced {{IPA|/nədʁa/}} when it appears alone.
[[Compound (linguistics)|Compounding]] plays a large part in Ubykh and, indeed, in all Northwest Caucasian [[semantics]]. For instance, the verb ''to love'' is expressed as {{IPA|/ʈʂʼɜn bɨjɜ/}} ({{Lit|to see well}}),<ref>{{cite book|last=Mészáros|first=Julius von|title=Die Päkhy-Sprache|year=1934|location=Chicago|page=265}}</ref> as in {{IPA|/ʈʂʼɜn zbɨˈjɜn/}} {{Gloss|I love him}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vogt|first=Hans|title=Dictionnaire de la langue Oubykh|year=1963|location=Oslo|page=96}}</ref>

[[Reduplication]] occurs in some roots, often those with [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]] values ({{IPA|/χˤɜχˤɜ/}}, {{Gloss|to curry[comb]}} from {{IPA|/χˤɜ/}} {{Gloss|to scrape}}; {{IPA|/kʼɨrkʼɨr/}}, {{Gloss|to cluck like a chicken}} [a loan from Adyghe]); and {{IPA|/wɜrqwɜrq/}}, {{Gloss|to croak like a frog}}).

Roots and affixes can be as small as one phoneme. The word {{IPA|/wɜntʷɐn/}}, {{Gloss|they give you to him}}, for instance, contains six phonemes, each a separate morpheme:

*{{IPA|/w/}} - 2nd singular absolutive
*{{IPA|/ɜ/}} - 3rd singular dative
*{{IPA|/n/}} - 3rd ergative
*{{IPA|/tʷ/}} - to give {{ref|reference_name_A|a}}
*{{IPA|/ɐ/}} - ergative plural
*{{IPA|/n/}} - present tense

However, some words may be as long as seven [[syllable]]s (although these are usually compounds): {{IPA|/ʂɨqʷʼɜwɨɕɜɬɐdɨtʃɜ/}} ({{Gloss|staircase}}).

=== Slang and idioms ===
As with all other languages, Ubykh is replete with [[idiom]]s. The word {{IPA|/ntʷɜ/}} ('door'), for instance, is an idiom meaning either "magistrate", "court", or "government." However, idiomatic constructions are even more common in Ubykh than in most other languages; the representation of abstract ideas with series of concrete elements is a characteristic of the Northwest Caucasian family. As mentioned above, the phrase meaning "You loved him" translates literally as 'You saw him well'; similarly, "she pleased you" is literally 'she cut your heart'. The term {{IPA|/wɨrɨs/}} ('Russian'), an Arabic loan, has come to be a slang term meaning "infidel", "non-Muslim" or "enemy" (see [[#History|History]] below).

=== Foreign loans ===
The majority of loanwords in Ubykh are derived from either [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] or [[Arabic language|Arabic]], with smaller numbers from [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]], and the [[South Caucasian languages]]. Towards the end of Ubykh's life, a large influx of Adyghe words was noted; Vogt (1963) notes a few hundred examples. The phonemes {{IPA|/ɡ/ /k/ /kʼ/}} were borrowed from Arabic and Adyghe. {{IPA|/ɬʼ/}} also appears to come from Adyghe, although it seems to have arrived earlier on. It is possible, too, that {{IPA|/ɣ/}} is a loan from Adyghe, since most of the few words with this phoneme are obvious Adyghe loans: {{IPA|/pɐɣɜ/}} ('proud'), {{IPA|/ɣɜ/}} ('testis').

Many loanwords have Ubykh equivalents, but were dwindling in usage under the influence of Arabic, Circassian, and Russian equivalents:
* {{IPA|/bɨrwɨ/}} ('to make a hole in, to perforate' from Iranic languages) = {{IPA|/pɕɐtχʷ/}}
* {{IPA|/tʃɐj/}} ('tea' from Chinese) = {{IPA|/bzɨpɕɨ/}}
* {{IPA|/wɨrɨs/}} ('enemy' from Persian) = {{IPA|/bˤɜqˤʼɜ/}}

Some words, usually much older ones, are borrowed from less influential stock: Colarusso (1994) sees {{IPA|/χˤʷɜ/}} ('pig') as a borrowing from a proto-[[Semitic languages|Semitic]] *''huka'', and {{IPA|/ɜɡʲɜrɨ/}} ('slave') from an [[Iranian language|Iranian]] root; however, Chirikba (1986) regards the latter as being of Abkhaz origin ( ← Abkhaz ''agər-wa'' 'lower cast of peasants; slave', literally 'Megrelian').

== Evolution ==

In the scheme of Northwest Caucasian evolution, despite its parallels with Adyghe and Abkhaz, Ubykh forms a separate third branch of the family. It has fossilised palatal class markers where all other Northwest Caucasian languages preserve traces of an original labial class: the Ubykh word for 'heart', {{IPA|/ɡʲɨ/}}, corresponds to the reflex {{IPA|/ɡʷə/}} in Abkhaz, Abaza, Adyghe, and Kabardian. Ubykh also possesses groups of pharyngealised consonants. All other NWC languages possess true pharyngeal consonants, but Ubykh is the only language to use pharyngealisation as a feature of secondary articulation.

With regard to the other languages of the family, Ubykh is closer to Adyghe and Kabardian{{Contradictory inline|article=Abkhaz language|section=Classification|date=June 2013}} but shares many features with Abkhaz due to geographic influence;<!-- how so? Ubykh was not spoken in Abkhazia --> many later Ubykh speakers were bilingual in Ubykh and Adyghe.<!-- this actually suggests that [[Abkhaz language#Classification]] is right and that it is the other way round: Bilinguality suggests geographical/areal contact influence from Adyghe, rather than Abkhaz, which wasn't spoken in the same area, after all -->

=== Dialects ===
While not many dialects of Ubykh existed, one divergent [[dialect]] of Ubykh has been noted (in Dumézil 1965:266-269). Grammatically, it is similar to standard Ubykh (i.e. [[Tevfik Esenç]]'s dialect), but has a very different sound system, which had collapsed into just 62-odd phonemes:
* {{IPA|/dʷ/ /tʷ/ /tʷʼ/}} have collapsed into {{IPA|/b/ /p/ /pʼ/}}.
* {{IPA|/ɕʷ/ /ʑʷ/}} are indistinguishable from {{IPA|/ʃʷ/ /ʒʷ/}}.
* {{IPA|/ɣ/}} seems to have disappeared.
* Pharyngealisation is no longer distinctive, having been replaced in many cases by [[geminate]] consonants.
* Palatalisation of the uvular consonants is no longer phonemic.

== History ==
Ubykh was spoken in the eastern coast of the [[Black Sea]] around [[Sochi]] until 1864, when the Ubykhs were driven out of the region by the Russians. They eventually came to settle in Turkey, founding the villages of [[Hacı Osman]], [[Kırkpınar (village)|Kırkpınar]], Masukiye and [[Hacı Yakup]]. [[Arabic]] and [[Circassian languages|Circassian]] eventually became the preferred languages for everyday communication, and many words from these languages entered Ubykh in that period.

The Ubykh language [[extinct language|died out]] on 7 October 1992, when its last fluent speaker, [[Tevfik Esenç]], died.<ref name=Koerner1998/> Before his death, thousands of pages of material and many audio recordings had been collected and collated by a number of linguists, including [[Georges Charachidzé]], [[Georges Dumézil]], [[Hans Vogt (linguist)|Hans Vogt]], [[George Hewitt (linguist)|George Hewitt]] and [[A. Sumru Özsoy]], with the help of some of its last speakers, particularly Tevfik Esenç and [[Huseyin Kozan]].<ref name=Koerner1998/> Ubykh was never written by its speech community, but a few phrases were transcribed by [[Evliya Çelebi]] in his [[Seyahatname]] and a substantial portion of the oral literature, along with some cycles of the [[Nart saga]], was transcribed. Tevfik Esenç also eventually learned to write Ubykh in the transcription that Dumézil devised.

[[Julius von Mészáros]], a Hungarian linguist, visited Turkey in 1930 and took down some notes on Ubykh. His work ''[[Die Päkhy-Sprache]]'' was extensive and accurate to the extent allowed by his transcription system (which could not represent all the phonemes of Ubykh) and marked the foundation of Ubykh linguistics.

The Frenchman [[Georges Dumézil]] also visited Turkey in 1930 to record some Ubykh and would eventually become the most celebrated Ubykh linguist. He published a collection of Ubykh folktales in the late 1950s, and the language soon attracted the attention of linguists for its small number of phonemic vowels. Hans Vogt, a Norwegian, produced a monumental dictionary that, in spite of its many errors (later corrected by Dumézil), is still one of the masterpieces and essential tools of Ubykh linguistics.

Later in the 1960s and into the early 1970s, Dumézil published a series of papers on Ubykh [[etymology]] in particular and Northwest Caucasian etymology in general. Dumézil's book ''Le Verbe Oubykh'' (1975), a comprehensive account of the verbal and nominal morphology of the language, is another cornerstone of Ubykh linguistics.

Since the 1980s, Ubykh linguistics has slowed drastically with the most recent treatise being Fenwick's ''A Grammar of Ubykh'' (2011), who was also working on a dictionary.<ref name="fen1">{{cite journal |last1=Fenwick |first1=Rhona S. H. |title=Ubykh Dictionary Draft - M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1189012 |website=zenodo.org |year=2018 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.1189012 |access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref> The Ubykh themselves have shown interest in relearning their language.

The Abkhaz writer [[Bagrat Shinkuba]]'s historical novel [http://www.circassianlibrary.org/lib/html/Shinkuba-The_Last_of_the_Departed/contents.html Bagrat Shinkuba. ''The Last of the Departed''] treats the fate of the Ubykh people.

People who have published literature on Ubykh include
* [[Brian George Hewitt]]
* [[Georges Dumézil]]
* [[Hans Vogt (linguist)|Hans Vogt]]
* [[John Colarusso]]
* [[Tevfik Esenç]]
* [[Viacheslav Chirikba]]

===Notable characteristics===
Ubykh had been cited in the ''Guinness Book of Records'' (1996 ed.) as the language with the most consonant [[phoneme]]s, but since 2017 the [[Taa language|!Xóõ language]] (a member of the Tuu languages) has been considered by the book to have broken that record, with 130 consonants.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Language with most consonants|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/67421-language-with-most-consonants|access-date=2021-07-29|website=Guinness World Records|language=en-GB}}</ref> Ubykh has 20 [[uvular consonant|uvular]] and 29 pure [[fricative]] phonemes, more than any other known language.

===Samples===
All examples from Dumézil 1968 and retranscribed by Fenwick.{{sfn|Fenwick|2011|pp=200-201}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|Fáxie zebıyale zewaqʼalé azecíne
|fɐ́χʲɜ zɜ-bɨj-ɐlɜ zɜ-wɜqʼ-ɐlɜ́ ɐ-zɜ-dʒɨ́-nɜ-n
|long.ago one-sheep-COM one-goat-COM 3pABS-RECIP.OBL-accompany-PL-CONV}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|yaxhewtıní aduıgiıqʼén.
|j[ɜ]-ɐ-χˤ-ɜw:tɨ-nɨ́ ɐ-dʷɨ:gʲɨ-kʲɜ-qʼɜ́-n.
|NULL.ABS-3pERG-graze-FUT.II-CONV 3pABS-PVB-enter(PL)-PAST-PL}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|daxiebzínetʼın ábıj ácʼrefén
|d[ɜ]-ɐ-Ø-χʲɜ-bzɨ́-nɜ-tʼɨn ɐ́-bɨj ɐ-ʈʂʼɜfɜ́-n
|SUB-3pABS-3sOBL-BEN-meet-IMPF-NFIN the-sheep -the-front-OBL}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|giıtıní aqárğue şreğecʼiedeqʼé
|Ø-Ø-gʲɨ-tɨ-nɨ́ ɐ-qɐ́rʁʷɜ[-n] Ø-Ø-ʂɜ:ʁɜ-tɕʼɜdɜ-qʼɜ́
|3pABS-3sOBL-PVB-be.standing(SG)-CONV the-gully[-OBL] 3sABS-3sOBL-PVB-jump-PAST}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|deşreğe-çʼiedetʼín ğekʼuecé qʼéşieqʼe ğélheqʼen
|dɜ-Ø-Ø-ʂɜ:ʁɜ-tɕʼɜdɜ-tʼɨ́n ʁɜ-kʷʼɜtʃɜ́ Ø-qʼɜ́ɕɜ-qʼɜ ʁɜ́-ɬɜqʼɜ-n
|SUB-3sABS-3sOBL-PVB-jump-CONV 3sPOSS-tail 3sABS-raise-PAST 3sPOSS-footprint-OBL}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|giıtuqʼejtʼ wuqʼí aşueçegií
|Ø-Ø-gʲɨ́-tʷ-qʼɜ:jtʼ wɜqʼɨ́ ɐ-ʃʷɜtʃɜ-gʲɨ́
|3sABS-3sOBL-PVB-be.standing(SG)-PLUP[.NFIN] goat 3sABS-laugh-CONV}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|mğiawqʼé «wıtxiéşeçen
|Ø-mʁʲɐ-w-qʼɜ́ «wɨ-t-χʲɜ́-ʃʷɜtʃɜ-n
|3sABS-PVB-enter(SG)-PAST «2sABS-REL-BEN-laugh-PRES}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|sákiıy?» qʼɜn aweqʼín
|Ø-sɐ́kʲɨ-j?» Ø-qʼɜ-n ɐ-wɜqʼɨ́-n
|3sABS-what[.STAT.PRES.NFIN]-INTERR 3sABS-say-CONV the-goat-OBL}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|déğadzğetʼín «wípşe zbyeqʼé
|dɜ́-Ø-ʁ[ɜ]-ɐ-dzʁɜ-tʼɨn «wɨ́-pʃɜ Ø-z-bjɜ-qʼɜ́
|SUB-3sABS-3sPOSS-PVB-ask-CONV «3sPOSS-bottom 3sABS-1sERG-see-PAST}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|wenéci sıtxieşeçén» qʼɜqʼé
|Ø-wɜnɜ́-dʑ sɨ-t-χʲɜ-ʂɜ-ʃʷɜtʃɜ́-n» Ø-Ø-qʼɜ-qʼɜ́
|3sABS-that-COP[.STAT.PRES] 1sABS-REL-PVB-laugh-PRES[.NFIN]» 3sABS-3sERG-say-PAST}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|ábıyıytʼíngiı díbrazen «ğue
|Ø-ɐ́-bɨjɨ-jtʼɨ-n-gʲɨ Ø-Ø-dɨ́-brɐzɜ-n «ʁʷɜ
|3sABS-the-sheep-STAT.PAST[.NFIN]-ERG-EMPH 3sABS-3sERG-CAUS-turn-CONV «you(SG)}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|mışüe-sresrıní wípşe ɐduın giıt
|mɨɕʷɜ-ʂɜʂɨnɨ́ wɨ́-pʃɜ ɐ-dʷɨ-n Ø-Ø-gʲɨ-t
|day-every 2sPOSS-bottom the-field-OBL 3sABS-3sOBL-PVB-be.standing(SG)[.STAT.PRES]}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|wıgié wmcʼiáyın, ğue zekié
|wɨ-gʲɜ́ Ø-w-m-tɕʼ[ɜ]-ɐ́jɨ-n, ʁʷɜ zɜ:kʲɜ́
|2sPOSS-self 3sABS-3sERG-NEG-know-ITER-CONV you(SG) once}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|sípşe déwbyeqʼeğafé wışueçén
|sɨ́-pʃɜ dɜ́-Ø-w-bjɜ-qʼɜ-ʁ[ɜ]:ɐfɜ́ wɨ-ʃʷɜtʃɜ́-n»
|1sPOSS-bottom SUB-3sABS-3sERG-see-PAST[.NFIN]-becayuse 2sABS-laugh-PRES»}}

{{fs interlinear|glossing=link|number=ex:
|ınqʼeqʼé.
|ɨ-Ø-n-qʼɜ-qʼɜ́.
|3sABS-3sOBL-3sERG-say-PAST}}

====Free English translation====
Once, a sheep and a goat went into the field to go grazing. Where they went to graze, they came upon a gully, and the sheep, who was in front, jumped over it. When the sheep jumped, its tail flew up. The goat, who had been following behind it, began to laugh.

"What are you laughing for?" the sheep asked the goat. "I saw your arse, that's what I'm laughing about," said the goat. The sheep turned to the goat and said, "your arse is out in the open every day without you knowing it. And you laugh because you saw mine once."

{{Reflist|group=#}}

== Notes ==

: {{note|reference_name_A|a}} Fenwick lists a plural form for {{IPA|/tʷ/}} ('to give') but it is never used in the grammar even when a plural form is expected.

==See also==
*[[North Caucasian languages]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==Bibliography==
* [[Viacheslav Chirikba|Chirikba, V.]] (1986). ''Abxazskie leksicheskie zaimstvovanija v ubyxskom jazyke'' (Abkhaz Lexical Loans in Ubykh). ''Problemy leksiki i grammatiki jazykov narodov Karachaevo-Cherkesii: Sbornik nauchnyx trudov'' (Lexical and Grammatical Problems of the Karachay-Cherkessian National Languages: A Scientific Compilation). ''Cherkessk'', 112–124.
* [[Viacheslav Chirikba|Chirikba, V.]] (1996). ''Common West Caucasian. The Reconstruction of its Phonological System and Parts of its Lexicon and Morphology''. Leiden: CNWS Publications.
* [[John Colarusso|Colarusso, J.]] (1994). Proto-Northwest Caucasian (Or How To Crack a Very Hard Nut). ''Journal of Indo-European Studies'' '''22''', 1-17.
* Fenwick, R. (2011). ''A Grammar of Ubykh''. Munich: Lincom Europa.
* [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil, G.]] (1957). ''Contes et Légendes des Oubykhs'' (Tales and Legends of the Ubykhs). Paris: L'Institut d'ethnologie.
* [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil, G.]] (1959). ''Trois récits oubykhs'' (Three Ubykh narratives). Baden: [[Anthropos (journal)|''Anthropos'']], vol. 54.
* [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil, G.]] (1961). ''Etudes oubykhs'' (Ubykh Studies). Paris: Librairie A. Maisonneuve.
* [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil, G.]] (1965). ''Documents anatoliens sur les langues et les traditions du Caucase'' (Anatolian Documents on the Languages and Traditions of the Caucasus), ''III: Nouvelles études oubykhs'' (New Ubykh Studies). Paris: Librairie A. Maisonneuve.
* [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil, G.]] (1968). Eating Fish Makes You Clever. Annotated recording available via [http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/archivage/tools/show_text.php?id=crdo-UBY_POISSON_SOUND] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228030455/http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/archivage/tools/show_text.php?id=crdo-UBY_POISSON_SOUND |date=2010-12-28 }}.
* [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil, G.]] (1975). ''Le verbe oubykh: études descriptives et comparatives'' (The Ubykh Verb: Descriptive and Comparative Studies). Paris: Imprimerie Nationale.
* Hewitt, B. G. (2005). North-West Caucasian. ''Lingua''. '''115''', 91-145.
* Mészáros, J. von. (1930). ''Die Päkhy-Sprache'' (The Ubykh Language). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
* [[Hans Vogt (linguist)|Vogt, H.]] (1963). ''Dictionnaire de la langue oubykh'' (Dictionary of the Ubykh Language). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

==External links==
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ubykh.htm Two proposals for a practical orthography for Ubykh]
* YouTube: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vRj-8oCmnkU Tevfik Esenç narrating the story of the two travellers and the fish in Ubykh]
* [http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/pangloss/corpus/list_rsc.php?lg=Ubykh&aff=oubykh A number of narrations by Tevfik Esenç, WAV format] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118052229/http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/pangloss/corpus/list_rsc.php?lg=Ubykh&aff=oubykh |date=2017-01-18 }}
* [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/UBY/uby.html Ubykh word list and recordings]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NUN7usYbxwE Gülcan Altan - Setenay (in Ubykh)]
* Song in Ubykh -  [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O5WhnsilcQA Ҳаҟоуп ҳара]

{{Northwest Caucasian languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ubykh Language}}
[[Category:Ubykh language| ]]
[[Category:Ubykh people]]
[[Category:Circassian culture]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Northwest Caucasian languages]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Europe]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of European Russia]]
[[Category:Languages of Turkey]]
[[Category:Vertical vowel systems]]