Editing Universal (metaphysics)

{{short description|Characteristic or qualities that particular things have in common}}
{{redirect|Universals||Universal (disambiguation)}}
{{more citations needed|date=June 2022}}

In [[metaphysics]], a '''universal''' is what particular things have in common, namely characteristics or qualities. In other words, universals are repeatable or recurrent entities that can be instantiated or exemplified by many particular things.<ref>Price (1953); Loux (1998), p 20.</ref> For example, suppose there are two chairs in a room, each of which is green. These two chairs share the quality of "[[wikt:chairness|chairness]]", as well as "greenness" or the quality of being green; in other words, they share two "universals". There are three major kinds of qualities or characteristics: [[type (metaphysics)|types or kinds]] (e.g. mammal), [[property (metaphysics)|properties]] (e.g. short, strong), and [[relation (metaphysics)|relations]] (e.g. father of, next to). These are all different types of universals.<ref>Loux (2001), p. 4.</ref>

Paradigmatically, universals are ''[[abstract (philosophy)|abstract]]'' (e.g. humanity), whereas [[particular]]s are ''[[concrete (philosophy)|concrete]]'' (e.g. the personhood of Socrates). However, universals are not necessarily abstract and particulars are not necessarily concrete.<ref>Rodriguez-Pereyra (2008), §1.</ref> For example, one might hold that numbers are particular yet abstract objects.  Likewise, some philosophers, such as [[David Malet Armstrong|D. M. Armstrong]], consider universals to be concrete.

Most do not consider [[class (philosophy)|classes]] to be universals, although some prominent philosophers do, such as John Bigelow.

==Problem of universals==
{{Main|Problem of universals}}
The [[problem of universals]] is an ancient problem in metaphysics on the existence of universals. The problem arises from attempts to account for the phenomenon of [[Similarity (philosophy)|similarity]] or attribute agreement among things.<ref>Loux (1998), p. 20; (2001), p. 3.</ref> For example, [[grass]] and [[Granny Smith|Granny Smith apples]] are similar or agree in attribute, namely in having the attribute of greenness. The issue is how to account for this sort of agreement in attribute among things.

There are many philosophical positions regarding universals. Taking "[[beauty]]" as an example, four positions are:
* [[Idealism]]: beauty is a property constructed in the mind, so it exists only in descriptions of things.
* [[Platonic realism|Platonic extreme realism]]: beauty is a property that exists in an ideal form independently of any mind or thing.
* [[Aristotle's theory of universals|Aristotelian moderate realism]] or [[conceptualism]]: beauty is a property of things (''fundamentum in re'')<ref>Cfr. Georg Jánoska, "Das ''Fundamentum in re'' im Nominalismus", in: ''Kant-Studien'' Volume 55: Issue 1-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/kant.1964.55.1-4.439 | Published online: 04 Sep 2009</ref> that the mind abstracts from these beautiful things.
* [[Nominalism]]: there are no universals, only individuals.

Taking a broader view, the main positions are generally considered classifiable as: [[Philosophical realism|extreme realism]], [[nominalism]] (sometimes simply named "anti-realism" with regard to universals),<ref>MacLeod & Rubenstein (2006), §3.</ref> [[moderate realism]], and [[idealism]]. Extreme Realists posit the existence of independent, abstract universals to account for attribute agreement. Nominalists deny that universals exist, claiming that they are not necessary to explain attribute agreement. Conceptualists posit that universals exist only in the [[philosophy of mind|mind]], or when conceptualized, denying the independent existence of universals, but accepting they have a ''fundamentum in re''. 
Complications which arise include the implications of language use and the complexity of relating language to [[ontology]].

==Particular==
{{Main|Particular}}
A universal may have instances, known as its ''particulars''. For example, the type ''dog'' (or ''doghood'') is a universal, as are the property ''red'' (or ''redness'') and the relation ''betweenness'' (or ''being between''). Any particular dog, red thing, or object that is between other things is not a universal, however, but is an ''instance'' of a universal. That is, a universal type (''doghood''), property (''redness''), or relation (''betweenness'') ''[[Substance theory#Inherence|inheres]]'' in a particular object (a specific dog, red thing, or object between other things).

==Platonic realism==
[[Platonic realism]] holds universals to be the [[referent]]s of general terms, such as the ''[[abstraction|abstract]]'', nonphysical, non-mental entities to which words such as "sameness", "circularity", and "beauty" refer. Particulars are the referents of proper names, such as "Phaedo," or of definite descriptions that identify single objects, such as the phrase, "that person over there". Other metaphysical theories may use the terminology of universals to describe physical entities.

Plato's examples of what we might today call universals included mathematical and geometrical ideas such as a circle and natural numbers as universals.  Plato's views on universals did, however, vary across several different discussions. In some cases, Plato spoke as if the perfect circle functioned as the [[substantial form|form]] or blueprint for all copies and for the word definition of ''circle''. In other discussions, Plato describes particulars as "participating" in the associated universal.

Contemporary realists agree with the thesis that universals are multiply-exemplifiable entities. Examples include by [[D. M. Armstrong]], Nicholas Wolterstorff, Reinhardt Grossmann, Michael Loux.

==Nominalism==
Nominalists hold that universals are not real mind-independent entities but either merely concepts (sometimes called "conceptualism") or merely names. Nominalists typically argue that properties are abstract particulars (like tropes) rather than universals. [[JP Moreland]] distinguishes between "extreme" and "moderate" nominalism.<ref>Moreland (2001).</ref> Examples of nominalists include Buddhist logicians and [[apoha]] theorists,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Perrett |first=Roy W. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/an-introduction-to-indian-philosophy/B9CD240194015F1D13BCDE7CA376CB86#contents |title=An Introduction to Indian Philosophy |date=2016-01-25 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85356-9 |edition=1 |pages=133 |doi=10.1017/cbo9781139033589}}</ref> the medieval philosophers [[Roscelin of Compiègne]] and [[William of Ockham]] and contemporary philosophers [[W. V. O. Quine]], [[Wilfrid Sellars]], [[D. C. Williams]], and [[Keith Campbell (philosopher)|Keith Campbell]].

==Ness-ity-hood principle <!--'Ness-ity-hood principle' and 'Ness-ity-hood Principle' redirect here-->==
The '''ness-ity-hood principle'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> is used mainly by English-speaking philosophers to generate convenient, concise names for universals or [[Property (philosophy)|properties]].<ref>Feldman (2005), p. 25.</ref>  According to the Ness-Ity-Hood Principle, a name for any universal may be formed by taking the name of the [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] and adding the suffix "ness", "ity", or "hood". For example, the universal that is distinctive of left-handers may be formed by taking the predicate "left-handed" and adding "ness", which yields the name "left-handedness".  The principle is most helpful in cases where there is not an established or standard name of the universal in ordinary English usage:  What is the name of the universal distinctive of chairs?  "Chair" in English is used not only as a subject (as in "The chair is broken"), but also as a predicate (as in "That is a chair").  So to generate a name for the universal distinctive of chairs, take the predicate "chair" and add "ness", which yields "chairness".

==See also==
{{cols}}
* [[Hypostatic abstraction]]
* [[Philosophy of mathematics]]
* [[Sortal]]
* [[Transcendental nominalism]]
* ''[[The Secret of Hegel]]''
* [[Universality (philosophy)]]
* [[Universalism]]
{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* [[Fred Feldman (philosopher)|Feldman, Fred]] (2005). "The Open Question Argument: What It Isn't; and What It Is", ''Philosophical Issues'' 15, ''Normativity''. 
* Loux, Michael J. (1998). ''Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction'', N.Y.: Routledge.
* Loux, Michael J. (2001). "The Problem of Universals" in ''Metaphysics: Contemporary Readings'', Michael J. Loux (ed.), N.Y.: Routledge, pp.&nbsp;3–13.
* MacLeod, M. & Rubenstein, E. (2006). "Universals", ''The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', J. Fieser & B. Dowden (eds.). ([http://www.iep.utm.edu/u/universa.htm link])
* Moreland, J. P. (2001). ''Universals'', McGill-Queen's University Press/Acumen.
* Price, H. H. (1953). "Universals and Resemblance", Ch. 1 of ''Thinking and Experience'', Hutchinson's University Library.
* Rodriguez-Pereyra, Gonzalo (2008). "Nominalism in Metaphysics", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Edward N. Zalta (ed.). ([http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2008/entries/nominalism-metaphysics/ link])

==Further reading==
* Aristotle, ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]'' ([http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.1.1.html link])
* Aristotle, ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'' ([http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.html link])
* [[David Malet Armstrong|Armstrong, D. M.]] (1989). ''Universals: An Opinionated Introduction'', Westview Press. ([https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-6077.2005.00051.x link])
* Bolton, M., “Universals, Essences, and Abstract Entities”, in: D. Garber, M. Ayers, red., ''The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-Century Philosophy'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. I, pp.&nbsp;178–211
* Lewis, D. (1983), "New work for a theory of universals". Australasian Journal of Philosophy. Vol. 61, No. 4. 
* Libera, Alain de (2005), ''Der Universalienstreit. Von Platon bis zum Ende des Mittelalters'', München, Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2005
* Plato, ''Phaedo'' ([http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/phaedo.html link])
* Plato, ''Republic'' (esp. books V, VI, VII and X) ([http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.html link])
* Plato, ''Parmenides'' ([http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/parmenides.html link])
* Plato, ''Sophist'' ([http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/sophist.html link])
* Quine, W. V. O. (1961). "On What There is," in ''From a Logical Point of View'', 2nd/ed. N.Y: Harper and Row.
* Russell, Bertrand (1912). "The World of Universals," in ''The Problems of Philosophy'', Oxford University Press.
* Russell, Bertrand (1912b). "On the Relation of Universals and Particulars" ([http://www.hist-analytic.com/Russelluniversals.pdf link])
* Swoyer, Chris (2000). "Properties", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Edward N. Zalta (ed.). ([http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2000/entries/properties/ link])
* Williams, D. C. (1953). "On the Elements of Being", ''Review of Metaphysics'', vol. 17. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20080510053004/http://www.hist-analytic.org/WILLIAMS3.htm link])

==External links==
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/universals-medieval/ Chrysippus] – ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''
* [https://www.iep.utm.edu/universa/ Chrysippus] – ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''

{{metaphysics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Metaphysical properties]]
[[Category:Ontology]]
[[Category:Abstract object theory]]
[[Category:Substance theory]]