Editing Valentinian I

{{short description|Roman emperor from 364 to 375}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Valentinian the Great
| image        = Gold Solidus of Valens, Antioch.jpg
| image_size   = 
| alt          = Gold coin depicting a man with diadem facing right
| caption      = [[Solidus (coin)|''Solidus'']] of Valentinian marked: {{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|d·n·|DOMINUS NOSTER}} valentinianus {{Abbreviation|p·f·|PIUS FELIX}} {{Abbreviation|aug·|AUGUSTUS}}}}
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]]
| moretext     = (in the [[Western Roman Empire|West]])
| reign        = 26 February 364 – {{nowrap|17 November 375}}
| predecessor  = [[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]]
| successor    = [[Gratian]] and [[Valentinian II]]
| regent       = [[Valens]] (in the [[Eastern Roman Empire|East]])
| reg-type     = {{nowrap|Co-emperor}}
| birth_date   = 321
| birth_place  = Cibalae, [[Pannonia (Roman province)|Pannonia]], Roman Empire {{small|(now [[Vinkovci]], [[Croatia]])}}
| death_date   = 17 November 375 (aged 54)
| death_place  = Brigetio, [[Pannonia Valeria]] {{small|(now [[Szőny]], [[Hungary]])}}
| burial_place = 
| spouse       = [[Marina Severa]]<br/>[[Justina (empress)|Justina]]
| issue        = {{ubl|[[Gratian]]|[[Valentinian II]]|[[Galla (wife of Theodosius I)|Galla]]|Grata|Justa}}
| issue-link   = 
| issue-pipe   = 
| full name    = 
| regnal name  = [[Imperator]] [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Flavia gens|Flavius]] Valentinianus [[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]{{efn|The name "Flavius" only appears in two single inscriptions, and only abbreviated as "Fl".<ref>{{cite book |first1=Roger S. |last1=Bagnall |author-link=Roger S. Bagnall |first2=Alan |last2=Cameron |first3=Seth R. |last3=Schwartz |first4=Klaas A. |last4=Worp |author-link4=Klaas Worp |title=Consuls of the Later Roman Empire |publisher=American Philological Association |year=1987 |isbn=1-55540-099-X |pages=264–281}}</ref> By the late 4th century, "Flavius" had become a [[courtesy title]] used not only for emperors, but to all high-profile men, like the [[Roman consul]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cameron|first=Alan|date=1988|title=Flavius: a Nicety of Protocol|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41540754|journal=Latomus|volume=47|issue=1|pages=26–33|jstor=41540754}}</ref>}}{{efn|The ''[[L'Année Épigraphique]]'' attests his full name as ''Flavius Julius Valentinianus''.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1949 |title=Tables analytiques de la revue des publications épigraphiques |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25606700 |journal=[[L'Année épigraphique]] |volume= 1949|pages=88 |jstor=25606700 |issn=0066-2348}}</ref>}}
| dynasty      = [[Valentinianic dynasty|Valentinianic]]
| father       = [[Gratianus Funarius]]
| religion     = [[Nicene Christianity]]
}}

'''Valentinian I''' ({{langx|la|Valentinianus}}; 321{{snd}}17 November 375), also known as '''Valentinian the Great''', was [[Roman emperor]] from 364 to 375. He ruled the [[Western Roman Empire|Western]] half of the empire, while his brother [[Valens]] ruled the [[Byzantine Empire|East]]. During his reign, he fought successfully against the [[Alamanni]], [[Quadi]], and [[Sarmatians]], strengthening the border fortifications and conducting campaigns across the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]]. His general [[Count Theodosius|Theodosius]] defeated a revolt in [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] and the [[Great Conspiracy]], a coordinated assault on [[Roman Britain]] by [[Picts]], [[Scoti]], and [[Saxons]]. Valentinian founded the [[Valentinian dynasty]], with his sons [[Gratian]] and [[Valentinian II]] succeeding him in the western half of the empire.

== Early life ==
Valentinian was born in 321 at Cibalae (now [[Vinkovci]], [[Croatia]]) in southern [[Pannonia]]{{Sfn|Roberts|1998}}{{Sfn|Grant|1985|p=259}} into a family of [[Illyro-Roman]] origin.{{Sfn|Lenski|2003|p=56}} Valentinian and his younger brother [[Valens]] were the sons of [[Gratianus Funarius|Gratianus]] (nicknamed Funarius), a military officer renowned for his wrestling skills.{{Sfn|Roberts|1998}}{{Sfn|Grant|1985|p=259}}{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=2}}

Gratianus was promoted to ''[[comes Africae]]'' in the late 320s or early 330s, and the young Valentinian accompanied his father to Africa.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=4}}{{Sfn|Grant|1985|p=259}} However, Gratianus was soon accused of embezzlement and retired.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=4}}{{Sfn|Roberts|1998}} Valentinian joined the army in the late 330s and later probably acquired the position of ''[[Domesticus (Roman Empire)|protector domesticus]]''.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=4}}{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=7}} Gratianus was later recalled during the early 340s and was made ''[[comes Britanniarum]]''.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=4}}{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=7}} After holding this post, he retired to the family estate in Cibalae.{{sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=5}}{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=7}}

In 350, [[Constans I]] was assassinated by agents of the [[usurper]] [[Magnentius]], a commander who proclaimed himself emperor in [[Gaul]].{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=471}} [[Constantius II]], older brother of Constans and emperor in the East, promptly set forth towards Magnentius with a large army.{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=8}} The following year the two emperors met in Pannonia and fought the [[Battle of Mursa Major]], which ended in a costly victory for Constantius.{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=8}}{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=473}} Two years later Magnentius killed himself after another defeat at the [[Battle of Mons Seleucus]], leaving Constantius sole ruler of the empire.{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=8}}{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=474}} It was around this time that Constantius confiscated Gratianus' property, for supposedly showing hospitality to Magnentius when he was in Pannonia.{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=8}} Despite his father's fall from favour, Valentinian does not seem to have been adversely affected at this time, making it unlikely he ever fought for the usurper.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=13}}{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=8}} It is known that Valentinian was in the region during the conflict, but what involvement he had in the war, if any, is unknown.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=13}}

== Service under Constantius and Julian ==
[[File:Valentiniano Primo.jpg|thumb|Damaged head of a [[Valentinian dynasty|Valentinianic]] emperor. It most likely depicts Valentinian I, or perhaps his brother, Valens. In [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Valentinian I |url=https://museum.classics.cam.ac.uk/collections/casts/valentinian-i |access-date= |website=[[Museum of Classical Archaeology, Cambridge|Museum of Classical Archaeology]] |quote=This frowning head with staring eyes can be identified with accuracy by comparison with coins, and from a bronze head discovered in the early twentieth century at the Ponte Sisto in Rome.}}</ref><ref>Johansen, F. (1995). ''Catalogue of the Roman Portraits III; Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek''. Copenhagen. pp. 178–179</ref><ref name=":2">García Ruiz, María P.; Quirogas Puertas, Alberto J. (2021). [https://books.google.com/books?id=xo8cEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 ''Emperors and Emperorship in Late Antiquity: Images and Narratives'']. Brill. p. 150.</ref><ref>[http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=950 http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-578 (J. Lenaghan)]</ref>]]
During the conflict between Magnentius and Constantius, the [[Alamanni]] and [[Franks]] took advantage of the confusion and crossed the [[Rhine]], attacking several important settlements and fortifications.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=4}}{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=13}} In 355, after deposing his cousin [[Constantius Gallus|Gallus]] but still feeling the crises of the empire too much for one emperor to handle, Constantius raised his cousin [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] to the rank of ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=4}}{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=9}} With the situation in Gaul rapidly deteriorating, Julian was made at least nominal commander of one of the two main armies in Gaul, [[Barbatio]] being commander of the other.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=4}} Constantius devised a strategy where Julian and Barbatio would operate in a pincer movement against the Alamanni.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=13}} However, a band of Alamanni slipped past Julian and Barbatio and attacked [[Lugdunum]] ([[Lyon]]). Julian sent the tribunes Valentinian and [[Bainobaudes]] to watch the road the raiders would have to return by. However, their efforts were hindered by Barbatio and his tribune Cella. The Alamanni king [[Chnodomarius]] took advantage of the situation and attacked the Romans, inflicting heavy losses.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=13}} Barbatio complained to Constantius and the debacle was blamed on Valentinian and Bainobaudes, who were cashiered from the army.{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=13}}{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=12}}

With his career in ruins, Valentinian returned to his new family estate in [[Sirmium]]. Two years later his first wife [[Marina Severa]] gave birth to a son, [[Gratian]].{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=14}}{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=12}} During the sole reign of the polytheist Julian, Valentinian's actions and location become uncertain, but he was likely exiled,{{efn|Sources give different commands Valentinian held at the time and vastly different places of exile: [[Philostorgius]] says Constantius exiled Valentinian to [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] in [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], [[Sozomen]] to [[Melitene]] in [[Lesser Armenia|Armenia]], the [[Paschal Chronicle]] to [[Selymbria]] in [[Thrace]], and [[Theodoret]] to "a distant fort.”{{Sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=14}}}} or perhaps simply sent to command a remote outpost.{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=16}} The sources give contradictory accounts of what happened, with some versions saying that he refused to make pagan sacrifices and voluntarily chose to leave, and others saying he was merely dismissed for his Christianity.<ref>Jones, A.H.M.; Martindale, J.R. (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD 260–395. Cambridge University Press. p. 933.</ref>

== Rise to power ==
At the news of Julian's death on a campaign against the [[Sasanian Empire]], the army hastily declared [[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]] the new emperor. He extricated his soldiers from Persian territory by agreeing to a humiliating peace treaty, then started back to Constantinople.{{sfn|Tomlin|1973|p=16}} During Jovian's brief reign Valentinian was promoted to tribune of a ''[[Scutarii]]'' (elite infantry) regiment, which Hughes considered to reflect the Emperor’s trust in him, and dispatched to [[Ancyra]].{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=18}}

Jovian died in mysterious circumstances before he reached the capital, and a meeting of civil and military officials was convened at [[Nicaea]] to choose a new emperor. [[Salutius]], who had already refused the throne after Julian's death, now did so again, first for himself and then on behalf of his son.<ref>[[Edward Gibbon]], ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XXV., pp. 845, 846</ref> Two other names were proposed: [[Aequitius]], a tribune of the first Scutarii, and Januarius, a relative of Jovian's in charge of military supplies in Illyricum. Both were rejected; Aequitius as too rough and boorish, Januarius because he was too far away.{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=18}}{{sfn|Curran|1998|pp=80-81}} As a man well qualified and at hand, the assembly finally agreed upon Valentinian and sent messengers to inform him in Ancyra.
[[File:INC-1867-r Солид. Валент II. Ок. 375—378 гг. (реверс).png|thumb|Valentinian and Valens enthroned on the reverse of a ''[[Solidus (coin)|solidus]]'' of Valens, marked {{Smallcaps|victoria {{Abbreviation|augg·|AUGUSTORUM}}}} ("''the [[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]] of Our Augusti''"). They hold together the [[Globus cruciger|orb]], a symbol of power]]

== Reign ==
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2017}}
[[File:Colosso-de-barletta.jpg|thumb|The [[Colossus of Barletta]]: Statue of a Roman emperor sometimes identified as Valentinian I. It probably depicts [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] instead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Discussion: Colossal bronze statue of emperor in cuirass. Probably from Constantinople (now in Barletta). Late fourth to fifth century [LSA-441] |url=http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=813#:~:text=The%20colossal%20bronze%20statue%20now,a%20site%20by%20the%20harbour. |access-date= |website=Last Statues of Antiquity |publisher=[[University of Oxford]]}}</ref>]]
Valentinian accepted the acclamation on 25 or 26 February 364.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Den Boeft|first=J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=viazS1MNryoC&pg=PA23|title=Philological and historical commentary on Ammianus Marcellinus: XXVI|publisher=Brill|year=2008|pages=23–24, 81–82|isbn=978-9004163461 }}</ref> As he prepared to make his accession speech, the soldiers threatened to riot, apparently uncertain of his loyalties. Valentinian reassured them that the army was his greatest priority. According to [[Ammianus]] the soldiers were astounded by Valentinian's bold demeanour and his willingness to assume the imperial authority. To further prevent a succession crisis he agreed to pick a co-''Augustus'', perhaps as a reassurance to civilian officials in the Eastern part of the Empire that someone with imperial authority would be present to protect their interests.<ref>{{cite book |last1=James W. Ermatinger |title=The Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2018 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1440838095 |page=242}}</ref>

Valentinian selected his brother Valens as co-''Augustus'' at [[Constantinople]] on 28 March 364.<ref name=":1" /> This was done over the objections of [[Dagalaifus (magister equitum)|Dagalaifus]], the ''[[magister equitum]]''. Ammianus makes it clear that Valens was subordinate to his brother. The remainder of 364 was spent delegating administrative duties and military commands. According to the 5th century [[pagan]] historian [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], who was inclined to revile the restorer of [[Christianity]], all the ministers and officials appointed by [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] were summarily dismissed in disgrace. This assertion was qualified  by modern authorities.<ref>Gibbon, p. 849 note</ref> It is certain that some reshuffling of commands occurred along with the division of the provinces, but the changes were strictly based on merit. The [[Sophists]] and philosophers who had proliferated in the court of Julian, drawing large salaries for delusive services, were cashiered.<ref>Gibbon, ch. XXIII., pp. 771–773; ch. XXV., p. 849</ref>  Valentinian retained the services of Dagalaifus and promoted Aequitius to ''Comes Illyricum''. Valens was given the [[Praetorian prefecture of the East]], governed by [[prefect]] [[Salutius]]. Valentinian gained control of [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy|Italy]], [[Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul|Gaul]], and [[Praetorian Prefecture of Illyricum|Illyricum]]. Valens resided in Constantinople, while Valentinian's court was situated in Milan ([[Mediolanum]]).

=== Campaigns in Gaul and Germania ===
[[File:INC-3035-r Солид. Валентиниан I. Ок. 367—375 гг. (реверс).png|alt=|thumb|Reverse of a ''solidus'' of Valentinian marked: {{Smallcaps|restitutor reipublicae}} ("''restitutor of the Republic''")]]

In 365 the [[Alemanni]] crossed the Rhine and invaded Gaul. Simultaneously, [[Procopius (usurper)|Procopius]] began his revolt against Valens in the east. According to Ammianus, Valentinian received news of both crises on 1 November while on his way to [[Lutetia]]. He initially sent [[Dagalaifus (magister equitum)|Dagalaifus]] to fight the Alemanni<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVI.5.9</ref> while he himself made preparations to march east and help Valens. After receiving counsel from his court and deputations from the leading Gallic cities begging him to stay and protect Gaul, he decided to remain and fight the Alemanni.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVI.5.12</ref><ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVI.5.13</ref>
Valentinian advanced to [[Durocortorum]] and sent two generals, Charietto and Severianus, against the invaders.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.1.2</ref> Both generals were promptly defeated and killed;<ref name="ReferenceA">Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.1.4</ref> Dagalaifus took their place in 366, but he was also ineffective.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.2.1</ref> Late in the campaigning season Dagalaifus was replaced by [[Jovinus (consul)|Jovinus]], a general from the court of Valentinian. After several victories along the [[Meuse]] river, Jovinus fought and won a pitched battle with the Alemanni near Chalôn.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.2.1–7</ref> After his victory he pushed the Alemanni out of Gaul and was awarded the consulate the following year for his efforts.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.2.10</ref>

In early 367, [[Great Conspiracy|crises in Britain and northern Gaul]] postponed Valentinian's punitive expedition against the Alemanni, who promptly re-crossed the Rhine and plundered [[Moguntiacum]]. Valentinian succeeded in arranging the assassination of [[Vithicabius]], an Alemannic leader, but wanted to decisively end the conflict by bringing the Alemanni under Roman hegemony. Valentinian spent the entire winter of 367 gathering a massive army for a spring offensive. He summoned the ''Comes Italiae'' Sebastianus,{{sfn|Hughes|2013}} with the Italian and Illyrian legions, to join Jovinus and Severus, the ''[[magister peditum]]''. In the spring of 368 Valentinian, his eight-year-old son Gratian and the army crossed the Rhine and [[Main (river)|Main]] rivers into Alemannic territory. Initially they encountered no resistance, burning any dwellings or food stores they found along the way. Finally, Valentinian fought the Alemanni in the [[Battle of Solicinium]]; the Romans were victorious<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.10.15</ref> but suffered heavy casualties.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.10.16</ref> A temporary peace was reached and Valentinian returned to [[Trier]] for the winter.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.10.17</ref> During 369, Valentinian ordered new defensive works to be constructed and old structures refurbished along the length of the Rhine's west bank.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVIII.2.1</ref> Boldly, he ordered the construction of a fortress across the Rhine in the mountains near modern [[Heidelberg]].<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVIII.2.2</ref> The Alemanni sent envoys to protest, but they were dismissed. The Alemanni attacked the fortress while it was still under construction and destroyed it.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVIII.2.8</ref>
[[File:Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence (32212815186).jpg|alt=Portrait head of Valentinian or Valens on a modern bust.|thumb|Life-size portrait head of Valentinian or Valens on a modern bust, [[Uffizi|Uffizi Gallery]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>[http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=954 http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-582 (J. Lenaghan)]</ref>]]
In 370 the [[Saxons]] renewed their attacks on northern Gaul. Nannienus, the ''comes'' in charge of the troops in northern Gaul, urged Severus to come to his aid. After several modest successes, a truce was called and the Saxons handed over young men fit for duty in the Roman military, in exchange for free passage back to their homeland. The Romans ambushed them and destroyed the entire invading force.<ref>Rike, R.L., ''Apex Omnium: Religion in the Res Gestae of Ammianus'' (1987), p.. 91; Jones, Martindale and Morris, ''The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire'' Vol. I (1971), pp. 615–616</ref>

Valentinian meanwhile tried to persuade the [[Burgundians]] – bitter enemies of the Alemanni – to attack [[Macrian]], a powerful Alemannic chieftain. If the Alamanni tried to flee, Valentinian would be waiting for them with his army. Negotiations with the Burgundians broke down when Valentinian, in his usual high-handed manner, refused to meet with the Burgundian envoys and personally assure them of Roman support. Nevertheless, rumors of a Roman alliance with the Burgundians did have the effect of scattering the Alemanni through fear of an imminent attack from their enemies. This event allowed the ''[[magister equitum]]'' [[Count Theodosius|Theodosius]] to attack the Alemanni{{sfn|Hughes|2013}} through Raetia. The many prisoners he took were settled in the [[Po river]] valley in Italy, where they still resided at the time Ammianus wrote his history.

Valentinian campaigned unsuccessfully for four more years to defeat Macrian, who in 372 barely escaped capture by Theodosius. Meanwhile, Valentinian continued to recruit heavily from Alemanni friendly to Rome. The Alemannic king [[Fraomar]] was given the rank of [[Military tribune|tribune]] and sent to Britain in 372–373 with an army of reinforcements, and the noblemen Bitheridius and [[Hortarius]] became commanders in Valentinian's army, although Hortarius was soon executed for conspiring with Macrian. The campaigns against hostile Alemanni were hampered by troubles first in Africa, and later on the Danube river. In 374 Valentinian was forced to make peace with Macrian because the Emperor's presence was needed to counter an invasion of Illyricum by the [[Quadi]] and [[Sarmatians]].

=== The Great Conspiracy ===
[[File:INC-3035-a Солид. Валентиниан I. Ок. 367—375 гг. (аверс).png|thumb|A ''[[Solidus (coin)|solidus]]'' of Valentinian]]
In 367, events known as the [[Great Conspiracy]] threatened Roman control of Britain. Valentinian received reports that a combined force of [[Picts]], [[Attacotti]] and [[Scoti|Scots]] had attacked the province, killing the ''[[Comes litoris Saxonici]]'' [[Nectaridus]] and ''[[Dux Britanniarum]]'' [[Fullofaudes]]. At the same time, Frankish and Saxon forces were raiding the coastal areas of northern Gaul. Valentinian set out for Britain, sending ''Comes domesticorum'' Severus ahead of him to investigate. Severus was not able to correct the situation and returned to Gaul, meeting Valentinian at [[Samarobriva]]. Valentinian then sent Jovinus to Britain and promoted Severus to ''magister peditum''. It was at this time that Valentinian fell ill and a battle for succession broke out between Severus, a representative of the army, and Rusticus Julianus, ''magister memoriae'' and a representative of the Gallic nobility. The conflict dissipated when Valentinian recovered and appointed his son Gratian as his co-Augustus in the west.{{sfn|Curran|1998|pp=83–84}} Ammianus remarks that such an action was unprecedented. Jovinus quickly returned saying that he needed more men to take care of the situation. In 368 Valentinian appointed Theodosius as the new ''[[Comes Britanniarum]]'' with instructions to return Britain to Roman rule. Meanwhile, Severus and Jovinus were to accompany the emperor on his campaign against the Alamanni.

Theodosius arrived in 368 with the [[Batavi (Germanic tribe)|Batavi]], [[Heruli]], Jovii and Victores legions. Landing at [[Rutupiæ]], he proceeded to [[Londinium]], restoring order to southern Britain. Later, he rallied the remaining garrison which was originally stationed in Britain; it was apparent the units had lost their cohesiveness when Fullofaudes and Nectaridus had been defeated. Theodosius sent for [[Civilis (vicarius)|Civilis]] to be installed as the new [[vicarius]] of the [[diocese]] and [[Dulcitius]] as an additional general.
In 369, Theodosius set about reconquering the areas north of Londinium, putting down the revolt of [[Valentinus (rebel)|Valentinus]], the brother-in-law of a [[vicarius]], [[Maximinus (praetorian prefect)|Maximinus]]. Subsequently, Theodosius restored the rest of Britain to the empire and rebuilt many fortifications – renaming northern Britain '[[Valentia (Roman Britain)|Valentia]]'. After his return in 369, Valentinian promoted Theodosius to ''magister equitum'' in place of Jovinus.

=== Revolt in Africa and crises on the Danube ===
[[File:Missorio di valentiniano I, argento, 364-75 ca., dall'arve, 02.JPG|thumb|right|Heavily-worn silver ''missorium'' (ca. 364–375) believed to depict Valentinian I. Flanked by infantry soldiers, the armoured and haloed emperor holds a [[labarum]] in one hand and an orb surmounted by a figure of Victory in the other]]
In 372, the rebellion of [[Firmus (4th century usurper)|Firmus]] broke out in the still-devastated African provinces. This rebellion was driven by the corruption of the ''comes'' Romanus. Romanus took sides in the murderous disputes among the legitimate and illegitimate children of Nubel, a Moorish prince and leading Roman client in Africa. Resentment of Romanus's personal use of public funds and his failure to defend the province from desert nomads caused some of the provincials to revolt. Valentinian sent in Theodosius to restore imperial control. Over the following two years Theodosius uncovered Romanus' crimes, arrested him and his supporters, and defeated both Firmus and the African tribes like the [[Abanni]] and [[Caprarienses]] that supported him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Desanges |first=J. |title=Encyclopédie berbère |year=1984 |volume=1 |pages=56}}</ref>

In 373, hostilities erupted with the [[Quadi]], a group of Germanic-speaking people living on the upper Danube. Like the Alamanni, the Quadi were outraged that Valentinian was building fortifications in their territory. They complained and sent deputations to the ''magister armorum per Illyricum'' Aequitius, who promised to refer the matter to Valentinian. However, the increasingly influential minister Maximinus, now praetorian prefect of Gaul, blamed Aequitius to Valentinian for the trouble, and managed to have him promote his son Marcellianus to finish the project.<ref>Gibbon, p. 894</ref> The protests of Quadic leaders continued to delay the project, and to put an end to their clamor Marcellianus murdered the Quadic king [[Gabinius (king)|Gabinius]] at a banquet ostensibly arranged for peaceful negotiations. This roused the Quadi to war, along with their allies the Sarmatians. During the fall, they crossed the Danube and began ravaging the province of [[Pannonia Valeria]]. The marauders could not penetrate the fortified cities, but they heavily damaged the unprotected countryside. Two legions were sent in but failed to coordinate and were routed by the Sarmatians. Meanwhile, another group of Sarmatians invaded [[Moesia]], but were driven back by the son of Theodosius, ''Dux Moesiae'' and later emperor [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]].

Valentinian did not receive news of these crises until late 374. The following spring he set out from Trier and arrived at [[Carnuntum]], which was deserted. There he was met by Sarmatian envoys who begged forgiveness for their actions. Valentinian replied that he would investigate what had happened and act accordingly. Valentinian ignored Marcellianus’ treacherous actions and decided to punish the Quadi. He was accompanied by Sebastianus and [[Merobaudes (magister peditum)|Merobaudes]], and spent the summer months preparing for the campaign. In the fall he crossed the Danube at [[Aquincum]] into Quadi territory.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXX.5.13</ref> After pillaging Quadi lands without opposition, he retired to [[Szombathely|Savaria]] to winter quarters.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXX.5.14</ref>

==== Death ====
Without waiting for the spring, Valentinian decided to continue campaigning and moved from Savaria to [[Szony|Brigetio]]. He arrived on 17 November 375 and had a hostile meeting with a Quadi deputation,{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=86}} who received permission for their people to leave in peace in return for supplying fresh recruits to the Roman army. The envoys insisted that the conflict was caused by the building of Roman forts in their lands. They added that individual bands of Quadi, not affiliated with the chiefs who had made the treaties, might still attack the Romans at any time. Enraged, Valentinian began yelling abuse at the envoys and suffered a fatal stroke.{{sfn|Lenski|2003|p=142}} As was the custom, he was [[deified]], becoming known as {{Langx|la|Divus Valentinianus Senior|links=no|lit=the Divine Valentinian the Elder}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy |first=Michael |last=Kulikowski |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0674660137}}</ref>

== Reputation ==
[[File:Dél-Komárom - modern memorial plaque of the Roman imperator Valentinianus I.jpg|thumb|Modern memorial to Valentinian at [[Szőny]] ({{Langx|la|Brigetio|links=no}}) in [[Hungary]]]]
Modern historian [[A.H.M. Jones]] writes that although Valentinian I was "less of a boor" than his chief rival for election to the imperial throne, "he was of a violent and brutal temper, and not only uncultivated himself, but hostile to cultivated persons". According to [[Ammianus Marcellinus|Ammianus]], "he hated the well-dressed and educated and wealthy and well-born", which suggests Valentinian had his enemies in Rome who wanted to defame him by describing him as an uneducated brute. This was not a complete picture: Ammianus concedes that Valentinian had some spontaneous oratorical skill, and also says that in his spare time the Emperor was "an elegant painter and modeller [i.e., sculptor], and an inventor of new kinds of [weapons]" (XXX.9.4).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marcellinus |first1=Ammianus |translator-last1=Rolfe |translator-first1=John C. |title=Loeb Classical Library: Ammianus Marcellinus, III |date=1972 |publisher=Harvard University Press and William Heinemann Ltd. |location=Cambridge, MA, and London |isbn=0-674-99365-9 |page=371}}</ref> He appointed the Latin scholar [[Ausonius]] as tutor for his son Gratian,<ref>Robert Colton, "Ausonius and Juvenal", in: ''The Classical Journal'', 1973, p. 41</ref> showing an appreciation for the kind of classical education which he himself had been denied. According to Hugh Chisholm (1911), he was an able soldier and a conscientious administrator who took an interest in the welfare of the humbler classes, from which his father had risen. He founded schools, and provided medical attendance for the poor of [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] by appointing a physician for each of the fourteen districts of the city.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Valentinian I.|volume=27|page=851}}</ref> He also reissued an edict of [[Constantine I]] condemning abandonment of infants.<ref>Gibbon, ch. XIV, p. 375; ch. XXV, p. 859</ref>

Unfortunately Valentinian's good intentions were often frustrated by a bad choice of ministers, and "an obstinate belief in their merits despite all evidence to the contrary."<ref>A.H.M. Jones, ''The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986), p. 139.</ref> Further, the benevolence of his more generous edicts was counterbalanced by remarkable cruelty and barbarism in his private affairs.
He often had servants and attendants executed on trifling charges, and was reportedly accustomed to feed his victims to two bears, known as ''Mica Aurea'' (golden flake), and ''Innocence'', whose iron cage was transported wherever the emperor went. At length ''Innocence'', when she was considered to have faithfully discharged her office, was released with Valentinian's good wishes into her native wilds.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXIX.3.9; [[Charles Kingsley]], ''The Roman And The Teuton, A Series Of Lectures delivered before the University of Cambridge'', (Macmillan & Co., 1889, London), lecture II, ''The Dying Empire''</ref>

Valentinian was a [[Christians|Christian]] but permitted liberal religious freedom to all his subjects, proscribing only some forms of rituals such as particular types of sacrifices, and banning the practice of [[Magic in the Greco-Roman world|magic]]. In Christian affairs, he released [[edict]]s against the increasing wealth and worldliness of the clergy. One new law, issued via [[Pope Damasus I]], prohibited the granting of bequests to clergymen, and another said that members of the sacerdotal order must discharge the public duties owed on account of their property, or else relinquish it.<ref>Gibbon, ch. XXV, p. 864; ch. XX, p. 662, editor's note</ref><ref name="EB1911"/>

An account by [[Socrates of Constantinople|Socrates Scholasticus]], in his ''Historia Ecclesiastica'',  has led some to describe Valentinian as [[Polygamy in Christianity|polygamous]]. The text says that, having heard his wife [[Marina Severa]] constantly praise the beauty of her friend [[Justina (empress)|Justina]],

{{Blockquote|text=[t]he emperor, treasuring this description by his wife in his own mind, considered with himself how he could espouse Justina, without repudiating Severa, as she had borne him Gratian, whom he had created Augustus a little while before. He accordingly framed a law, and caused it to be published throughout all the cities, by which any man was permitted to have two lawful wives. The law was promulgated and he married Justina, by whom he had [[Valentinian II|Valentinian the younger]].|author=Socrates Scholasticus|title=Historia Ecclesiastica|source=IV.31}}<ref>Translated by A.C. Zenos. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.)</ref>

This story is known only from Socrates, and there is no trace of any edict by any emperor allowing polygamy. Valentinian I and Severa may have divorced, a course permitted by Roman law (see [[marriage in ancient Rome]]).<ref>Frier, Bruce W. and McGinn, Thomas A.J.: ''A Casebook on Roman Family Law'' (American Philological Association) OUP US, 2003. Part D, "The End of Marriage"</ref> However, since divorce was not acknowledged by Christians,<ref>Matthew 19, 4–6.</ref> Socrates contemptuously describes him as a bigamist. It is also possible that Socrates attempted to accuse Justina, who was an [[Arianism|Arian]], of fornication, a common aspersion against other cults. According to [[John Malalas]], the [[Chronicon Paschale]], and [[John of Nikiu]], the empress Severa was banished by Valentinian I for conducting an illegal transaction, before he consorted with Justina. Barnes believes this story to be an attempt to justify the divorce of Valentinian I without accusing the Emperor.<ref>Timothy Barnes, ''Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality'' (1998), pp. 123–125</ref>

The historian [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Michael Grant]], while noting Valentinian's unpleasant personality and bad choice of subordinates, nevertheless calls him "the last really impressive Emperor Rome ever had", and summarizes his career thus:

{{Blockquote|text=Valentinian was a superb soldier and a conscientious worker, endowed with ferocious energy. He felt a strong duty to the state, and, much more unusual, a strong duty to the poor, an emotion which he combined with a considerable distaste for the Roman upper class. More unusual still, in the age in which he lived, he believed in tolerating differences of religious opinion. For all his faults he would have been an outstanding man in any epoch, and it is only because of the misleading tradition which dismisses the personalities of the later Empire that most people have never heard of him.}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Fall of the Roman Empire- A Reappraisal |last=Grant |first=Michael |publisher=The Annenberg School Press |year=1976 |isbn=0517524481 |location=Pennsylvania |pages=30}}</ref>

=== Appearance ===
The coin portraits of Valentinian and Valens are of dubious quality, showing "heavy" faces rendered with "no animation, and little consistency".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=J. P. C. |last2=Hirmer |first2=Max |last3=Hirmer |first3=Albert |title=Roman Coins |date=1978 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-23273-3 |page=57}}</ref> A more flattering physical description of Valentinian is given by Ammianus (XXX.9.6), who praises the emperor's "strong and muscular body, his brilliant complexion, his grey eyes, with a gaze that was always sidelong and stern, his fine stature, and his regular features".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marcellinus |first1=Ammianus |translator-last1=Rolfe |translator-first1=John C. |title=Loeb Classical Library: Ammianus Marcellinus, III |date=1972 |publisher=Harvard University Press and William Heinemann Ltd. |location=Cambridge, MA, and London |isbn=0-674-99365-9 |page=373}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Roman Empire}}
* [[List of Roman emperors]]
* [[Illyrian emperors]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Sources ==
=== Primary sources ===
*Ammianus Marcellinus. Rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt. W. Seyfarth, ed. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1978.
* {{Cite book|last=Charles|first=Robert H.|author-link=Robert Charles (scholar)|title=The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text|year=2007|orig-year=1916|location=Merchantville, NJ|publisher=Evolution Publishing|isbn=9781889758879|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KgZ-DOr77OQC}}
*Consularia Constantinopolitana. T. Mommsen ed., Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Auctores Antiquissimi. Volume 9. Berlin, 1892.
*Codex Theodosianus. T. Mommsen, P.M. Meyer, and P. Krüger, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI cum constitutionibus Sirmondianis et leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes (2 vols.). Berlin, 1905.
*Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Vol. 6. T. Mommsen, ed. Berlin, 1875.
*Epitome de Caesaribus. F.R. Pichlmayr, ed. Leipzig, 1961.
*Jerome. Chronicon. R. Helm, ed., in Malcolm Drew Donalson, A Translation of Jerome's Chronicon with Historical Commentary. Lewiston, NY, 1996.
*Orosius. Adversus paganos historiarum libri septem. Z. Zangemeister, ed. Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum 5. Vienna, 1882.
*Socrates. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca 67. Paris, 1864.
*Sozomen. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca 67. Paris, 1864.
*Theoderet. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca 82. Paris, 1864.
*Zosimus. Historia nova. François Paschoud, ed. and trans., Zosime: Histoire Nouvelle (3 vols.). Paris, 1971–89.
*Ammian, Books&nbsp;26–30 [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Ammian/home.html#26 Uchicago.edu]. English summaries. Main text in Latin.

=== Secondary accounts ===
* {{cite book |last=Curran |year=1998 |first=John |section=From Jovian to Theodosius |title=The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425|editor=Averil Cameron |editor2=Peter Garnsey |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-30200-5 |title-link= iarchive:the-cambridge-ancient-history-volume-13/mode/1up|name-list-style=amp |editor-link=Averil Cameron |editor2-link=Peter Garnsey}}
* {{cite book |last=Errington |year=2006 |first=R. Malcolm |title=Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |place=Chapel Hill |isbn=0-8078-3038-0 |url={{googlebooks|PpGvoLVkLxYC|plainurl=y}} }}
* [[Edward Gibbon]], ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', 1776.
* {{Cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |title=The Roman emperors |publisher=Michael Grant Publications |year=1985 |isbn=0-684-18388-9 |author-link=Michael Grant (classicist)}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=Ian |title=Imperial Brothers: Valentinian, Valens and the Disaster at Adrianople |date=2013 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-4738-2863-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5b9AwAAQBAJ |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lenski |first=Noel |title=Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D. |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=0520928539}}
* {{cite book |last=Potter |first=David S. |title=The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-10057-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott }}
* {{cite web |last1=Roberts |first1=Walter E. |year=1998 |title=Valentinian I (364–375 A.D) |url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/vali.htm |work=[[De Imperatoribus Romanis]]}}
* {{in lang|de}} Schmidt-Hofner, Sebastian (2008a). ''Reagieren und Gestalten: der Regierungsstil des spaetrömischen Kaisers am Beispiel der Gesetzgebung Valentinians I'' [Reacting and shaping: the style of government of the late Roman emperor using the example of the legislation of Valentinian I.]. Vestigia, vol. 58. Munich: Beck, {{ISBN|978-3-406-57268-5}}.
* Schmidt-Hofner, Sebastian (2008b). "Die kaiserlichen Regesten der Jahre 364 bis 375 n. Chr." [The imperial regesta of the years 364 to 375 AD]. In: ''Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte, Romanistische Abteilung'' '''125''', pp. 498–600.
* [[Ernst Stein]], ''Histoire du Bas-Empire,'' vol. i, chap. 4 (1959).
* {{Cite book |last=Tomlin |first=Roger |title=The Emperor Valentinian I |year=1973}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle = Valentinian I.|volume=27 |page=851}} <!-- Unusually, we cite EB1911 in two ways, because its body contains an alternative summary of the biography, and also some specific attributions (see the references secction) -->
* {{cite CE1913|wstitle = Valentinian|volume=16}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* This [http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/imperial-laws-chart-364 list of Roman laws of the fourth century] shows laws passed by Valentinian I relating to Christianity.
	
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Valentinianic dynasty]]||321|17 November|375}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]
        | years=364–375
        | with=[[Valens]] }}
{{s-aft | after=[[Gratian]] and [[Valentinian&nbsp;II]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]] |before2=[[Varronianus (son of Jovian)|Varronianus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] | years=365 |regent1= [[Valens]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Gratian]] |after2=[[Dagalaifus (magister equitum)|Dagalaifus]]}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Lupicinus (magister equitum)|Lupicinus]] |before2=[[Jovinus (consul)|Iovinus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] II| years=368 |regent1= [[Valens]] II}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Valentinianus Galates]] |after2=[[Victor (magister equitum)|Victor]]}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Valentinianus Galates]] |before2=[[Victor (magister equitum)|Victor]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] III| years=370 |regent1= [[Valens]] III}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Gratian]] II |after2=[[Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus|Sex. Claudius Petronius Probus]]}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Domitius Modestus]] |before2=[[Arintheus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] IV| years=373 |regent1= [[Valens]] IV}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Gratian]] III |after2=[[Equitius (consul)|Equitius]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Valentinian 01}}
[[Category:321 births]]
[[Category:375 deaths]]
[[Category:4th-century Christians]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman consuls]]
[[Category:People from Vinkovci]]
[[Category:Anti-German sentiment]]
[[Category:Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles]]
[[Category:Deified Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Illyrian people]]
[[Category:Romans from Pannonia]]
[[Category:Valentinianic dynasty]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman exiles]]
[[Category:Illyrian emperors]]
[[Category:Domesticus (Roman Empire)]]