Editing Valles Caldera

{{Short description|Volcanic caldera in New Mexico, United States}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Valles Caldera
| photo = Valle Grande dome.jpg
| photo_caption = Cerro la Jara, an approximately {{convert|246|ft|adj=on}} high forested [[rhyolite]] lava dome within the caldera
| elevation_ft = 11253
| elevation_ref = <ref name="volcano">{{cite gvp|name=Valles Caldera|vn=327817|access-date=2021-06-28}}</ref>
| prominence =
| prominence_m =
| prominence_ft =
| prominence_ref =
| listing =
| range = [[Jemez Mountains]]
| location = [[Sandoval County, New Mexico]], [[United States of America|US]]
| map = New Mexico
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in New Mexico
| map_relief =
| map_size = 230
| label =
| label_position = bottom
| range_coordinates =
| coordinates = {{coord|35|54|N|106|32|W|type:mountain_region:US-NM_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| topo =
| type = [[Complex volcano|Complex]] [[Caldera]]
| volcanic_arc/belt = [[Jemez Lineament]] and [[Rio Grande Rift]]
| age =
| last_eruption = 68,900 ± 1,000 years [[Before present|BP]]<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Nasholds |first1=Morgan W. M. |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Matthew J. |date=2022-11-01 |title=High-precision 40Ar/39Ar geochronology and volumetric investigation of volcanism and resurgence following eruption of the Tshirege Member, Bandelier Tuff, at the Valles caldera |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037702732200155X |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |language=en |volume=431 |pages=107624 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107624 |bibcode=2022JVGR..43107624N |s2cid=251076136 |issn=0377-0273|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
| easiest_route = [[New Mexico State Road 4]]
| embedded = {{designation list |embed=yes |designation1=NNL |designation1_date=1975}}
}}{{Infobox protected area
| name = Valles Caldera National Preserve
| location = [[Sandoval County, New Mexico|Sandoval]] and [[Rio Arriba County, New Mexico|Rio Arriba]] counties, [[New Mexico]], [[United States]]
| governing_body = [[National Park Service]]
| established = July 25, 2000
| created =
| authorized =
| area_acre = 89,766
| coordinates = {{coord|35.9|-106.533|notes=<ref>{{cite gnis |2035517 |Valles Caldera National Preserve |December 22, 2014}}</ref>|display=inline}}
| nearest_city = [[Los Alamos, New Mexico]]
| photo = Panorama of Valles Caldera, New Mexico (7271433464).jpg
| map_width =
| map_caption =
| relief = 1
| photo_width =
| photo_caption = Valles Caldera
| photo_alt =
| website = [https://www.nps.gov/vall Valles Caldera National Preserve]
}}'''The Valles Caldera''' (or '''Jemez Caldera''') is a {{convert|13.7|mi|km|-wide|sp=us|adj=mid}} [[volcano|volcanic]] [[caldera]] in the [[Jemez Mountains]] of northern [[New Mexico]].<ref name="volcano" />  [[Hot spring]]s, streams, [[fumarole]]s, natural gas seeps, and [[volcanic dome]]s dot the caldera landscape.<ref name="CNN" /> The highest point in the caldera is [[Redondo Peak]], an {{convert|11254|ft|m|adj=on}} [[Lava dome|resurgent lava dome]] located entirely within the caldera and surrounded by moat-like flows of rhyolitic solidified lavas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goff |first=Fraser |title=Valles Caldera: a geologic history |date=2009 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-8263-4590-5 |edition=1. |location=Albuquerque |pages=46}}</ref> Located within the caldera are several [[grass valley]]s, or ''valles'', the largest of which is '''Valle Grande''' ({{IPAc-en|local|pron|ˈ|v|aɪ|.|eɪ|_|ˈ|ɡ|r|ɑː|n|d|eɪ}} {{respell|VY|ay|_|GRAHN|day}}), the only one accessible by a paved road. In 1975, Valles Caldera was designated as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service with much of the caldera being within the '''Valles Caldera National Preserve''', a unit of the [[National Park System]].<ref>{{Cite web
|url=https://www.nps.gov/subjects/nnlandmarks/site.htm?Site=VACA-NM
|title=National Natural Landmarks - National Natural Landmarks (U.S. National Park Service)
|website=www.nps.gov|language=en
|quote="Year designated: 1975"
|access-date=2019-03-25}}</ref> The area has a varied history involving cultural significance, economic resources, scientific studies, and complex geological setting.

==History==
Use of Valles Caldera dates back to prehistoric times: spear points dating to 11,000 years ago have been discovered.<ref name=history>Anscheutz, Kurt F. and Merlan, Thomas (2007). [https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr196.pdf "More than a scenic mountain landscape: Valles Caldera National Preserve land use history"]. [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] Rocky Mountain Research Center, [[Fort Collins]], [[Colorado|CO]]</ref> Several [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes frequented the caldera for hunting prolific game and gathering [[obsidian]] that is common in this area. The obsidian was [[Knapping|knapped]] into tools and weapons while wild game was followed and hunted seasonally. Obsidian from the caldera was traded by tribes across much of the Southwest. Eventually, the Spanish, and later Mexican settlers along with the [[Navajo people|Navajo]] and other tribes came to the caldera seasonally for grazing livestock. This often resulted in periodic clashes and raids between tribes and cultures. Later, as the United States acquired New Mexico as part of the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] in 1848, the caldera became the backdrop for the Indian wars with the [[U.S. Army]]. Around the same time, the caldera and its forests began to be used commercially for ranching and logging.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

===Baca Ranch===
The caldera became part of the [[Baca land grants|Baca Ranch]] in 1876. The [[Baca family of New Mexico|Bacas]] were a wealthy family given the land as compensation for the termination of a grant given to their family near [[Las Vegas, New Mexico|Las Vegas]], in northeastern New Mexico. The family was given four other parcels by the US Government as well, another one in New Mexico, one in Colorado, and two in Arizona. This area, {{cvt|100000|acres}}, was called ''Baca Location Number One'' or ''Baca Float Number One.'' Since then, the land has been through a string of exchanges between private owners and business enterprises. Most notably, it was owned by Frank Bond in the 1930s. Bond, a businessman based in nearby [[Española, New Mexico|Española]], ran up to 30,000 sheep in the caldera, significantly overgrazing the land and causing damage from which the watersheds of the landscape are still recovering.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

The land was purchased by the Dunigan family from Abilene, Texas in 1963. Pat Dunigan did not obtain the timber rights, however, and the New Mexico Lumber Company logged the property heavily - removing significant amounts of old-growth [[douglas fir]] and [[ponderosa pine]]. Dunigan bought out the timber rights in the 1970s and slowed the logging. He negotiated unsuccessfully with the [[National Park Service]] and the [[US Forest Service]] for possible sale of the property in the 1980s.<ref name=history/>
[[File:Elk Calf, Valles Caldera.jpg|thumb|Elk Calf in the Valle Grande, 2012]]

===Valles Caldera National Preserve===
The Valles Caldera Preservation Act of 2000 signed by [[Bill Clinton|President Clinton]] on July 25, 2000, created the Valles Caldera National Preserve (VCNP).<ref name=Act>[http://www.vallescaldera.gov/about/trust/docs/PL%20106-248.pdf "Public Law 106–248 - 106th Congress"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222151016/http://www.vallescaldera.gov/about/trust/docs/PL%20106-248.pdf |date=2013-02-22 }}. Valles Caldera National Preserve. Retrieved on 2013-04-04.</ref> The legislation provided for the federal purchase of this historical ranch with funds coming from the [[Land and Water Conservation Fund]] derived from royalties the US government receives from offshore [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] [[drilling]].<ref name=CNN>Environmental News Network Staff (2000-07-17). [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/NATURE/07/17/baca.ranch.enn/ CNN.com "New Mexico's Baca Ranch soon to be public land"]. CNN.com. Retrieved on 2013-04-03.</ref> The Dunigan family sold the entire surface [[Estate (law)|estate]] of {{convert|95000|acre|km2}} and seven-eighths of the [[Geothermal activity|geothermal]] [[mineral]] estate to the [[federal government of the United States|federal government]] for $101&nbsp;million. As some sites of the Baca Ranch are sacred and of cultural significance to the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], {{convert|5000|acre|km2}} of the purchase were obtained by the [[Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico|Santa Clara Pueblo]], which borders the property to the northeast. These include the headwaters of Santa Clara Creek, which is sacred to the pueblo.<ref name=CNN/><ref name=history/> On the southwest corner of the land, {{convert|300|acre|km2}} were to be ceded to [[Bandelier National Monument]].{{cn|date=March 2025}}

The Baca Ranch, also known as Baca Location No. 1, had possessed a mixed range of [[tree]] species and significant [[biodiversity]]. At the time of the purchase, the ranch was home to {{convert|40|mi}} of pristine [[trout]] streams, {{convert|66118|acre}} of [[Temperate coniferous forest|conifer forest]], 17 endangered plant and animal species, and {{convert|25000|acre}} of [[grassland]] grazed by 8,000 [[elk]], New Mexico's largest herd. The preserve is encircled by federal lands, including the [[Santa Fe National Forest]], the [[Jemez National Recreation Area]], and [[Bandelier National Monument]].<ref name="CNN2">Environmental News Network Staff (2000-07-17). "New Mexico's Baca Ranch soon to be public land". CNN.</ref>

The Valles Caldera Preservation Act of 2000 also created the Valles Caldera Trust, an experimental management organization consisting of nine board members, including seven appointed by the [[President of the United States]].<ref name="about">[http://www.vallescaldera.gov/about/ "About VCNP"]. Valles Caldera National Preserve Official Website. Retrieved on 2013-04-03.</ref> The Trust combined private-sector practices with federal land management protocol. Under the terms of the Valles Caldera Preservation Act, the preserve was to become financially self-sustaining by 2015. The experiment was controversial. In 2010, the Trust admitted that it would be unable to achieve financial self-sustainability, having raised only about $850,000 of the $3&nbsp;million needed to manage the property each year.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

[[Environmentalist]]s lobbied for the more inclusive protections of national park status instead of the Trust model, but then-Senator [[Pete Domenici]] (R) insisted on the experimental approach as a condition for his support for public purchase. Beginning in 2010, US Senator [[Jeff Bingaman]] (D) introduced legislation that would transfer the property to the [[National Park Service]] as a [[national preserve]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=S.3452 - Valles Caldera National Preserve Management Act|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/senate-bill/3452|website=Congress.gov|date=27 September 2010}}</ref> The 2011 bill<ref>{{Cite web|title=S.564 - Valles Caldera National Preserve Management Act|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/112th-congress/senate-bill/564|website=Congress.gov|date=11 May 2011}}</ref> was supported by the VCNP trustees and a majority of New Mexico's Congressional delegation. On December 19, 2014, President [[Barack Obama]] signed the [[Carl Levin and Howard P. "Buck" McKeon National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2015|2015 National Defense Authorization Act]], which transferred administrative jurisdiction of the preserve from the Valles Caldera Trust to the National Park Service.<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 January 2018|title=Public Law 113-291 (Section 3043)|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-113publ291/pdf/PLAW-113publ291.pdf|access-date=11 January 2018|website=gpoinfo.gov}}</ref> After a brief transition period, the National Park Service assumed day-to-day management on October 1, 2015. On October 10, the preserve held an official dedication with dignitaries including U.S. Secretary of the Interior [[Sally Jewell]], U.S. Senator [[Tom Udall]], U.S. Senator [[Martin Heinrich]], former U.S. Senator [[Jeff Bingaman]], National Park Service Intermountain Region Director Sue Masica, and the first National Park Service Superintendent of Valles Caldera National Preserve, Jorge Silva-Bañuelos.<ref name="clark1">{{cite news|last1=Clark|first1=Carol A.|date=October 9, 2015|title=Interior Secretary Jewell Celebrates Valles Caldera's Addition To National Park Service|publisher=Los Alamos Post}}</ref>

=== Las Conchas Fire ===
In July 2011, the [[Las Conchas Fire]], started by a power line on nearby private land, burned {{convert|30000|acre|km2}} of the Valles Caldera National Preserve.  The [[wildfire]] burned a total of {{convert|156000|acre|km2}} in the [[Jemez Mountains]], including most of neighboring [[Bandelier National Monument]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-28 |title=Fire in the Jemez Mountains |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/e8dcc55831b348c6841ec7bd592559e8 |access-date=2024-10-26 |website=ArcGIS StoryMaps |language=en-us}}</ref> The Jemez Mountains and surrounding areas of the southwest incorporate dry climates, grasslands, and certain tree species (like [[Pinyon pine|Pinon]]) that evolved to exist with wildfires. Changes in climate and [[Anthropogenic effect|anthropogenic]] interference with the fire cycle and habitats, has led to fires that are hotter and more intense. These types of fires are more difficult for ecosystems to recover from.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

==Geoscience==
[[File:Valle Grande, Valles Caldera National Preserve, New Mexico, in winter.jpg|thumb|Cerro la Jara (right) in Valle Grande in winter]]
[[File:Valle Caldera, New Mexico.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Valles Caldera|301x301px]]

The circular [[topographic]] rim of the caldera measures {{convert|13.7|mi}} in diameter.<ref name="volcano"/>  The caldera and surrounding volcanic structures are one of the most thoroughly studied [[caldera]] complexes in the United States.  Research studies have focused on the fundamental processes of [[magma]]tism, [[hydrothermal]] systems, [[ore]] deposition, and glassy rhyolites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kenderes |first1=S. M. |last2=Befus |first2=K. S. |last3=Bryson |first3=A. N. |last4=Whittington |first4=A. G. |date=2022-10-27 |title=Thermal histories and emplacement dynamics of rhyolitic obsidian lavas at Valles caldera, New Mexico |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00445-022-01606-z |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |language=en |volume=84 |issue=11 |pages=98 |doi=10.1007/s00445-022-01606-z |bibcode=2022BVol...84...98K |issn=1432-0819|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Nearly 40 deep cores have been examined, resulting in extensive subsurface data and geothermal information.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

Valles Caldera is the younger of two calderas known at this location, having collapsed over and buried the older '''Toledo Caldera''', which in turn may have collapsed over yet older calderas.  The associated Cerros del Rio [[volcanic field]], which forms the eastern [[Pajarito Plateau]] and the [[Caja del Rio]], is older than the Toledo Caldera. The Toledo and Valles Calderas formed during eruptions 1.61 million and 1.25&nbsp;million years ago, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Izett|first=Glen A.|year=1981|title=Volcanic Ash Beds: Recorders of Upper Cenozoic Silicic Pyroclastic Volcanism in the Western United States|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=86|issue=B11|pages=10200–10222|bibcode=1981JGR....8610200I|doi=10.1029/JB086iB11p10200|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://nmgs.nmt.edu/publications/guidebooks/58|title=Geology of the Jemez Region II|last1=Dethier|first1=David P.|last2=Kampf|first2=Stephanie K.|date=2007|publisher=Ne Mexico Geological Society|page=499 p|access-date=6 November 2015}}</ref> The caldera-forming Toledo eruption emplaced the Otowi member of the [[Bandelier Tuff]] 1.61&nbsp;million years ago, which can be seen along [[canyon]] walls west of Valles Caldera, including [[San Diego Canyon]]. The younger Tshirege Member of the Bandelier Tuff was formed during the Valles Caldera eruption 1.23&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Nasholds |first1=Morgan W. M. |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Matthew J. |date=2022-11-01 |title=High-precision 40Ar/39Ar geochronology and volumetric investigation of volcanism and resurgence following eruption of the Tshirege Member, Bandelier Tuff, at the Valles caldera |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037702732200155X |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |language=en |volume=431 |pages=107624 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107624 |bibcode=2022JVGR..43107624N |s2cid=251076136 |issn=0377-0273|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The now eroded and exposed orange-tan, light-colored Bandelier Tuff from these events creates the stunning [[mesa]]s of the [[Pajarito Plateau]].
[[File:Obsidian.jpg|left|thumb|222x222px|Obsidian with a conchoidal fracture, some weathering, and rust-red coloring. Obsidian is volcanic glass; often black and opaque.]]
Caldera is the type locality for a [[resurgent dome]] caldera, the formation of which was first developed by C.S. Ross, R.L. Smith, and R.A. Bailey during field work at Valles in the 1960s.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last1=Smith|first1=Robert L.|chapter=Resurgent Cauldrons|date=1968|pages=613–662|publisher=Geological Society of America|language=en|doi=10.1130/mem116-p613|last2=Bailey|first2=Roy A.|title=Studies in Volcanology|volume=116|series=Geological Society of America Memoirs}}</ref>  This type locality and associated studies have been used to studied other resurgent domes around the world, including [[Yellowstone Caldera]]. After the initial caldera-forming eruption at Valles, the Redondo Peak resurgent dome was uplifted beginning around 1.2&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name=":3" /> Minor eruptions of moat [[Rhyolite|rhyolitic]] flows occurred from approximately 1.16&nbsp;million years ago at Cerro del Medio to 0.07&nbsp;million years ago at Banco Bonito, along a structural ring fracture zone.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gardner|first1=Jamie N.|last2=Goff|first2=Fraser|last3=Garcia|first3=Sammy|last4=Hagan|first4=Roland C.|date=1986|title=Stratigraphic relations and lithologic variations in the Jemez Volcanic Field, New Mexico|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=91|issue=B2|pages=1763|doi=10.1029/jb091ib02p01763|bibcode=1986JGR....91.1763G|issn=0148-0227}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Doell|first1=Richard R.|chapter=Paleomagnetism, Potassium-Argon Ages, and Geology of Rhyolites and Associated Rocks of the Valles Caldera, New Mexico|date=1968|pages=211–248|publisher=Geological Society of America|last2=Dalrymple|first2=G. Brent|last3=Smith|first3=Robert L.|last4=Bailey|first4=Roy A.|doi=10.1130/mem116-p211|title=Studies in Volcanology|volume=116|series=Geological Society of America Memoirs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Self|first1=S.|last2=Kircher|first2=D. E.|last3=Wolff|first3=J. A.|date=1988|title=The El Cajete Series, Valles Caldera, New Mexico|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=93|issue=B6|pages=6113|doi=10.1029/jb093ib06p06113|bibcode=1988JGR....93.6113S|issn=0148-0227}}</ref> The El Cajete [[Pumice]] and Battleship Rock [[Ignimbrite]] were emplaced in a single eruptive event 74,200 ± 1,100 years ago, followed by the eruption of the Banco Bonito [[obsidian]] flow during the youngest eruption of Valles Caldera, at 68,900 ± 1,000 years ago.<ref name=":3" /> The caldera and surrounding area continue to be shaped by ongoing volcanic activity. Seismic investigations show that a low-velocity zone lies beneath the caldera, suggesting the presence of partial melt within a remaining [[magma chamber]] at between 5 and 15&nbsp;km depth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Steck|first1=Lee K.|last2=Thurber|first2=Clifford H.|last3=Fehler|first3=Michael C.|last4=Lutter|first4=William J.|last5=Roberts|first5=Peter M.|last6=Baldridge|first6=W. Scott|last7=Stafford|first7=Darrik G.|last8=Sessions|first8=Robert|date=1998-10-10|title=Crust and upper mantlePwave velocity structure beneath Valles Caldera, New Mexico: Results from the Jemez teleseismic tomography experiment|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth|volume=103|issue=B10|pages=24301–24320|doi=10.1029/98jb00750|bibcode=1998JGR...10324301S|issn=0148-0227|doi-access=free}}</ref> An active geothermal system with [[hot springs]] and [[fumaroles]] exists today.<ref name="volcano" /> These calderas and associated volcanic structures lie within the [[Jemez Mountains|Jemez Volcanic Field]].  This volcanic field lies at the intersection of the [[Rio Grande Rift]], which runs north–south through New Mexico, and the [[Jemez Lineament]], which extends from southeastern [[Arizona]] northeast to western [[Oklahoma]]. The volcanic activity here is related to the tectonic movements of this intersection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Self|first1=Stephen|last2=Goff|first2=Fraser|last3=Gardner|first3=Jamie N.|last4=Wright|first4=John V.|last5=Kite|first5=William M.|date=1986|title=Explosive rhyolitic volcanism in the Jemez Mountains: Vent locations, caldera development and relation to regional structure|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=91|issue=B2|pages=1779|doi=10.1029/jb091ib02p01779|bibcode=1986JGR....91.1779S|issn=0148-0227}}</ref>

[[NASA]] used the caldera in October to November 1964 and again in September 1966 to geologically train the [[Apollo Astronauts]] in recognizing volcanic features, such as ash flow tuffs, pumice air falls, and rhyolite domes. Notable geologist instructors included Roy Bailey.<ref>'''Appendix E. Geology Field Exercises: Early Training''' Field Training Schedule for the first 3 Groups of Astronauts(29) ''Phase 1 of Geology Training - NASA'' https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/static/history/alsj//ap-geotrips.pdf</ref>

{{Wide image|South East Rim of the Valles Caldera in New Mexico.jpg|800px|Panoramic view of the Valles Caldera, from the south east rim; in the distance [[Redondo Peak]] (a [[resurgent dome]]) and the [[rhyolite]] [[lava dome]] of Cerro la Jara are visible on the far left.}}

===Climate===
According to the [[Köppen climate classification]], Valles Caldera has a [[subarctic climate]] (Dfc), with cold winters and mild summers. The caldera is subject to strong temperature inversions, causing very cold nights year round and high diurnal temperature variation.
{{Weather box
|location = Los Alamos 13 W, New Mexico, 1991–2020 normals: 8716ft (2657m)
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high F = 57
|Feb record high F = 56
|Mar record high F = 65
|Apr record high F = 72
|May record high F = 77
|Jun record high F = 88
|Jul record high F = 88
|Aug record high F = 84
|Sep record high F = 82
|Oct record high F = 74
|Nov record high F = 67
|Dec record high F = 59
|year record high F =

|Jan avg record high F = 48.8
|Feb avg record high F = 49.6
|Mar avg record high F = 58.8
|Apr avg record high F = 65.2
|May avg record high F = 71.9
|Jun avg record high F = 81.3
|Jul avg record high F = 80.9
|Aug avg record high F = 77.1
|Sep avg record high F = 74.2
|Oct avg record high F = 68.1
|Nov avg record high F = 61.2
|Dec avg record high F = 52.7
|year avg record high F = 82.3

|Jan high F = 36.2
|Feb high F = 38.2
|Mar high F = 44.5
|Apr high F = 52.4
|May high F = 62.0
|Jun high F = 71.7
|Jul high F = 73.7
|Aug high F = 71.1
|Sep high F = 65.7
|Oct high F = 56.5
|Nov high F = 45.5
|Dec high F = 36.4
|year high F =

|Jan mean F = 22.5
|Feb mean F = 25.2
|Mar mean F = 32.0
|Apr mean F = 38.9
|May mean F = 46.9
|Jun mean F = 55.6
|Jul mean F = 59.3
|Aug mean F = 57.2
|Sep mean F = 50.6
|Oct mean F = 41.4
|Nov mean F = 31.2
|Dec mean F = 22.7
|year mean F =

|Jan low F = 8.7
|Feb low F = 12.1
|Mar low F = 19.5
|Apr low F = 25.4
|May low F = 31.8
|Jun low F = 39.4
|Jul low F = 45.0
|Aug low F = 43.3
|Sep low F = 35.5
|Oct low F = 26.4
|Nov low F = 16.9
|Dec low F = 9.0
|year low F =

|Jan avg record low F=  -12.6
|Feb avg record low F=  -8.5
|Mar avg record low F=  0.9
|Apr avg record low F =  10.1
|May avg record low F =  19.2
|Jun avg record low F =  29.1
|Jul avg record low F =  37.2
|Aug avg record low F =  35.2
|Sep avg record low F =  25.4
|Oct avg record low F =  13.1
|Nov avg record low F =  -0.5
|Dec avg record low F =  -12.6
|year avg record low F = -18.4

|Jan record low F = −24
|Feb record low F = −26
|Mar record low F = −14
|Apr record low F = 2
|May record low F = 10
|Jun record low F = 22
|Jul record low F = 32
|Aug record low F = 30
|Sep record low F = 19
|Oct record low F = -2
|Nov record low F = -9
|Dec record low F = −26
|year record low F =

|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 1.76
|Feb precipitation inch = 1.98
|Mar precipitation inch = 2.35
|Apr precipitation inch = 1.76
|May precipitation inch = 1.39
|Jun precipitation inch = 1.15
|Jul precipitation inch = 3.68
|Aug precipitation inch = 3.66
|Sep precipitation inch = 2.18
|Oct precipitation inch = 2.17
|Nov precipitation inch = 1.63
|Dec precipitation inch = 1.77
|year precipitation inch =

|source 1 = NOAA<ref name = NOAA1>
{{cite web
|url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset=normals-monthly-1991-2020&startDate=0001-01-01&endDate=9996-12-31&stations=USW00003062&format=pdf
|title = Los Alamos 13 W, New Mexico 1991–2020 Monthly Normals
|access-date = November 11, 2023
}}
</ref>
|source 2 = XMACIS2 (records & monthly max/mins)<ref name = XMACIS>
{{cite web
|url = https://xmacis.rcc-acis.org/
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|title = xmACIS
|access-date = November 11, 2023
}}
</ref>
}}

{{Weather box
|location = Wolfcanyon, New Mexico, 1991–2020 normals, 1912–2020 extremes: 8220ft (2505m)
|single line = Yes

|Jan record high F = 63
|Feb record high F = 69
|Mar record high F = 75
|Apr record high F = 78
|May record high F = 86
|Jun record high F = 95
|Jul record high F = 99
|Aug record high F = 96
|Sep record high F = 91
|Oct record high F = 80
|Nov record high F = 74
|Dec record high F = 68
|year record high F =

|Jan avg record high F = 50.7
|Feb avg record high F = 50.8
|Mar avg record high F = 59.2
|Apr avg record high F = 66.4
|May avg record high F = 74.4
|Jun avg record high F = 82.9
|Jul avg record high F = 83.7
|Aug avg record high F = 80.2
|Sep avg record high F = 77.1
|Oct avg record high F = 69.7
|Nov avg record high F = 59.7
|Dec avg record high F = 51.2
|year avg record high F = 85.0

|Jan high F = 38.2
|Feb high F = 40.1
|Mar high F = 47.8
|Apr high F = 55.8
|May high F = 64.7
|Jun high F = 75.3
|Jul high F = 77.0
|Aug high F = 74.7
|Sep high F = 69.2
|Oct high F = 58.8
|Nov high F = 46.6
|Dec high F = 38.0
|year high F =

|Jan mean F = 23.7
|Feb mean F = 26.4
|Mar mean F = 33.3
|Apr mean F = 39.9
|May mean F = 47.3
|Jun mean F = 56.1
|Jul mean F = 60.4
|Aug mean F = 58.8
|Sep mean F = 52.6
|Oct mean F = 42.8
|Nov mean F = 32.1
|Dec mean F = 24.1
|year mean F =

|Jan low F = 9.3
|Feb low F = 12.7
|Mar low F = 18.8
|Apr low F = 24.0
|May low F = 29.9
|Jun low F = 36.9
|Jul low F = 43.7
|Aug low F = 42.9
|Sep low F = 36.1
|Oct low F = 26.7
|Nov low F = 17.6
|Dec low F = 10.1
|year low F =

|Jan avg record low F= -9.2
|Feb avg record low F= -6.0
|Mar avg record low F=  0.3
|Apr avg record low F = 10.8
|May avg record low F = 19.9
|Jun avg record low F = 27.4
|Jul avg record low F = 36.0
|Aug avg record low F = 35.3
|Sep avg record low F = 24.8
|Oct avg record low F = 13.7
|Nov avg record low F = 0.2
|Dec avg record low F = -9.3
|year avg record low F = -13.6

|Jan record low F = −38
|Feb record low F = −41
|Mar record low F = −26
|Apr record low F = -12
|May record low F = 5
|Jun record low F = 14
|Jul record low F = 18
|Aug record low F = 22
|Sep record low F = 11
|Oct record low F = -2
|Nov record low F = -29
|Dec record low F = −34
|year record low F =

|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 1.89
|Feb precipitation inch = 1.67
|Mar precipitation inch = 1.66
|Apr precipitation inch = 1.33
|May precipitation inch = 1.15
|Jun precipitation inch = 0.90
|Jul precipitation inch = 3.35
|Aug precipitation inch = 3.35
|Sep precipitation inch = 2.12
|Oct precipitation inch = 1.75
|Nov precipitation inch = 1.51
|Dec precipitation inch = 1.90
|year precipitation inch =

|Jan snow inch = 22.8
|Feb snow inch = 20.1
|Mar snow inch = 16.8
|Apr snow inch = 11.9
|May snow inch = 2.2
|Jun snow inch = 0.1
|Jul snow inch = 0.0
|Aug snow inch = 0.0
|Sep snow inch = 0.2
|Oct snow inch = 3.5
|Nov snow inch = 11.4
|Dec snow inch = 22.3
|year snow inch =

|source 1 = NOAA<ref name = NOAA>
{{cite web
|url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset=normals-monthly-1991-2020&startDate=0001-01-01&endDate=9996-12-31&stations=USC00299820&format=pdf
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|title =  Wolf Canyon, New Mexico 1991–2020 Monthly Normals
|access-date = September 24, 2023
}}
</ref>
|source 2 = XMACIS2 (records & monthly max/mins)<ref name = XMACIS>
{{cite web
|url = https://xmacis.rcc-acis.org/
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|title = xmACIS
|access-date = November 11, 2023
}}
</ref>
}}

{{Weather box
|collapsed=y
|location = Hidden Valley (Valles Caldera), New Mexico (2011–2023): {{cvt|8470|ft|m}}
|single line = Y
| Jan high F = 37.9
| Feb high F = 40.4
| Mar high F = 48.0
| Apr high F = 54.5
| May high F = 62.5
| Jun high F = 74.9
| Jul high F = 75.5
| Aug high F = 73.6
| Sep high F = 69.1
| Oct high F = 58.2
| Nov high F = 48.5
| Dec high F = 38.2
|year high F =
|Jan mean F = 16.4
|Feb mean F = 22.4
|Mar mean F = 31.8
|Apr mean F = 38.9
|May mean F = 45.7
|Jun mean F = 55.7
|Jul mean F = 58.3
|Aug mean F = 55.6
|Sep mean F = 49.5
|Oct mean F = 37.7
|Nov mean F = 27.4
|Dec mean F = 18.3
|year mean F =
| Jan low F = -3.5
| Feb low F = 2.3
| Mar low F = 13.6
| Apr low F = 18.9
| May low F = 22.7
| Jun low F = 29.6
| Jul low F = 39.2
| Aug low F = 37.0
| Sep low F = 29.5
| Oct low F = 17.3
| Nov low F = 8.4
| Dec low F = -1.1
|year low F =
|Jan record high F = 59.1
|Feb record high F = 57.9
|Mar record high F = 66.6
|Apr record high F = 72.9
|May record high F = 76.0
|Jun record high F = 90.0
|Jul record high F = 85.0
|Aug record high F = 82.5
|Sep record high F = 83.2
|Oct record high F = 74.8
|Nov record high F = 68.0
|Dec record high F = 64.2
|year record high F =
|Jan record low F = -39.6
|Feb record low F = -39.0
|Mar record low F = -23.1
|Apr record low F = -2.3
|May record low F = -1.1
|Jun record low F = 8.4
|Jul record low F = 20.7
|Aug record low F = 20.9
|Sep record low F = 7.7
|Oct record low F = -14.7
|Nov record low F = -19.9
|Dec record low F = -39.6
|year record low F =
|precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation inch = 1.13
| Feb precipitation inch = 0.71
| Mar precipitation inch = 2.10
| Apr precipitation inch = 0.63
| May precipitation inch = 0.91
| Jun precipitation inch = 1.07
| Jul precipitation inch = 4.01
| Aug precipitation inch = 2.61
| Sep precipitation inch = 2.50
| Oct precipitation inch = 2.08
| Nov precipitation inch = 1.16
| Dec precipitation inch = 0.91
|year precipitation inch =
| unit precipitation days = 0.01 in
| Jan precipitation days = 8.9
| Feb precipitation days = 7.7
| Mar precipitation days = 9.9
| Apr precipitation days = 7.7
| May precipitation days = 8.1
| Jun precipitation days = 5.8
| Jul precipitation days = 16.1
| Aug precipitation days = 14.7
| Sep precipitation days = 10.6
| Oct precipitation days = 9.1
| Nov precipitation days = 9.1
| Dec precipitation days = 7.7
| year precipitation days =
|source 1 = WRCC<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/rawMAIN.pl?nvvhvy
| title = Hidden Valley (VC) New Mexico
| publisher = [[Western Regional Climate Center]]
| accessdate = January 18, 2023
}}</ref>
}}

==Geothermal energy source potential==
The volcanic properties of Valles Caldera make it a likely source for renewable [[Geothermal power|geothermal]] energy.  However, some people oppose the development of geothermal energy, considering it destructive to the scenic beauty, recreational and grazing use. Its impact on the [[hot spring]]s and supplying aquifers is unknown as experiences from other past geothermal projects proved that production of reservoir fluids had dramatic impacts to the surface thermal features.<ref name=Goff>Goff, Fraser (2002-12). [http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull23-4/art3.pdf "Geothermal Potential of Valles Caldera, New Mexico"]. Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology. Retrieved on 2013-04-03.</ref>
[[File:Sulphur fumaroles, Hverir.jpg|left|thumb|329x329px|Sulphur fumaroles like these, found in Iceland, are often seen with such volcanic features and are related to the geothermal/geochemistry profile of the magma body.]]
Valles caldera was home to the first experiments into development of an [[Enhanced geothermal system]] (EGS) or [[Hot-dry-rock]] (HDR) geothermal system, beginning in 1974 by the [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] at the [[Fenton Hill Observatory|Fenton Hill]] reservoir, approximately 3&nbsp;km west of Valles caldera. Originally, the Fenton Hill site was chosen as an EGS laboratory in hopes that the proximity to Valles caldera would increase the temperature of the bedrock, thus requiring shallower drill depths. However, the abundance of [[Hydrothermal circulation|hydrothermal fluids]] discharged from the nearby caldera resulted in hydrothermal alteration of the rocks at depth, weakening the sealed nature of the reservoir.<ref name=":2">{{Citation|last1=Brown|first1=Donald W.|title=The Enormous Potential for Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy|date=2012|work=Mining the Earth's Heat: Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy|pages=17–40|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=9783540673163|last2=Duchane|first2=David V.|last3=Heiken|first3=Grant|last4=Hriscu|first4=Vivi Thomas|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-68910-2_2}}</ref> The Fenton Hill HDR experiment was finally abandoned in 1998.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Goff|first1=Fraser|last2=Janik|first2=Cathy J.|date=2002|title=Gas geochemistry of the Valles caldera region, New Mexico and comparisons with gases at Yellowstone, Long Valley and other geothermal systems|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume=116|issue=3–4|pages=299–323|doi=10.1016/s0377-0273(02)00222-6|bibcode=2002JVGR..116..299G|issn=0377-0273}}</ref> The experiments demonstrated that a potential EGS reservoir must be characterized by low [[Permeability (earth sciences)|permeability]], crystalline basement rock with no active [[Fault (geology)|faults]] or joints.<ref name=":2" />

From 1959 to 1983, approximately 40 exploratory geothermal wells were drilled into the Redondo Creek Graben as part of the Baca geothermal field, a joint operation by the United States [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]] and the Union Oil Company of California.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL STUDY OF THE BACA GEOTHERMAL FIELD, VALLES CALDERA, NEW MEXICO.|last=Information.|first=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. United States. Department of Energy. Office of Scientific and Technical|date=1982|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory|oclc=727182004}}</ref> Despite measuring a maximum temperature of 342&nbsp;°C and having a likely production capacity of 20&nbsp;MWe, the geothermal field was too small to be economic.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=KERR|first=R. A.|date=1982-11-12|title=Extracting Geothermal Energy Can Be Hard|journal=Science|volume=218|issue=4573|pages=668–669|doi=10.1126/science.218.4573.668|pmid=17791580|bibcode=1982Sci...218..668K|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Three scientific cores were drilled in Valles Caldera during the mid-1980s as part of the United States Continental Scientific Drilling Program in order to analyze the chemistry of geothermal fluids and the presence of a vapor-dominated cap in the Sulphur Springs region. The maximum bottom hole temperature measured during drilling was 295&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Continental Scientific Drilling Program : Valles Caldera, New Mexico.|last=Information.|first=Los Alamos National Laboratory. United States. Department of Energy. United States. Department of Energy. Geothermal Division. United States. Department of Energy. Office of Scientific and Technical|date=1993|publisher=United States. Dept. of Energy|oclc=727333478}}</ref> Overall, the geothermal reservoir at Valles Caldera is liquid-dominated rather than vapor-dominated and has a neutral-chloride fluid chemistry with a maximum temperature below 300&nbsp;°C.<ref name=":1" />

==Recreation==
[[Image:VCNPmule1.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[mule]] resting in Valle Jaramillo during an endurance race; trees in the background lack lower branches due to browsing.]]
A number of recreational and/or historical uses take place in Valles Caldera.  Many of these uses involve trails.  Over two dozen official hiking and biking trails of varying length are available. Maps and trail descriptions may be found in "Hiking Trails in Valles Caldera National Preserve," by Coco Rae. Valles Caldera has many miles of ranch roads, livestock and game trails.  These include a network of trails currently designated for horse riding.<ref>{{cite web |title=Valles Caldera National Preserve (2004) Stewardship Register: Interim Equestrian Program |publisher=Valles Caldera National Preserve |year=2004 |url=http://www.vallescaldera.gov/get_involved/stars/docs/200405InterimEquestrianProgram-SR.pdf
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Trail Riding Overview |publisher=Valles Caldera National Preserve |url=http://www.vallescaldera.gov/comevisit/horse }}</ref>  Historically, Valles Caldera was a location for [[endurance riding|equestrian endurance race]]s.  After establishment of VCNP, the first race in the caldera was held in 2009.  The largest grass valley, Valle Grande, is a venue for [[ski orienteering]].  Activities are open to the public, though some require reservations. Customer service and concierge services are provided by the [[Public Lands Interpretive Association]]. The valley floor is above {{cvt|8000|ft|m}} altitude.<!--8,500 says Google Maps terrain--><ref>{{cite web |title=Hiking - Valles Caldera National Preserve (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/vall/planyourvisit/hiking.htm |website=www.nps.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210320114228/https://www.nps.gov/vall/planyourvisit/hiking.htm |archive-date=March 20, 2021 |language=en |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Wildlife and livestock ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2023}}
Throughout the caldera, the grass valleys appear groomed: there are few saplings and mature trees lack lower branches. This is due to heavy [[w:Browsing (predation)|browsing]] by [[w:Elk|elk]] and [[w:Cattle|cattle]] and because of frequent grass fires of human and natural origin which kill the lower branches on the [[Engelmann spruce]], [[Douglas-fir]] and [[Ponderosa pine]] that populate the uplands around the lower-elevation [[Montane grasslands and shrublands|Montane grasslands]] dominating the bottoms of the calderas. The grasslands were native perennial [[bunch grass]] maintained by frequent fire before sheep and cattle grazing. Although the grass appears abundant, it is a limited resource and its growing season is short. Through the VCNP's limited grazing program, it feeds hundreds of cattle in the summer and thousands more of elk in the warm seasons, in drought winters, and during most of the year. The nutritional value of the bunch grasses is considered low or poor quality. Other wildlife that inhabits the area are [[Golden eagle|Golden Eagles]], striped [[Badger]]s, and the Gunnison [[Prairie dog|Prairie Dog]], to name a few.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-05 |title=Valles Caldera National Preserve |url=https://www.nationalparks.org/explore/parks/valles-caldera-national-preserve |access-date=2024-10-26 |website=National Park Foundation |language=en}}</ref> The National Park Service states that elk population in Valles Caldera is the second largest herd in New Mexico. Hunting is permitted within the National Preserve under certain restrictions and times of the year.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Springs |first1=Mailing Address: 090 Villa Louis Martin Dr Jemez |last2=Us |first2=NM 87025 Phone: 505-670-1612 Ranger StationContact |title=Hunting - Valles Caldera National Preserve (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/vall/planyourvisit/hunting.htm#:~:text=Hunting%20is%20a%20permitted%20use,applicable%20Federal%20and%20State%20law. |access-date=2024-10-26 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Meza |first=Valente |title=Big Game |url=https://wildlife.dgf.nm.gov/hunting/information-by-animal/big-game/ |access-date=2024-10-26 |website=NMDGF |language=en-US}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
[[File:Valle Grande set crop.jpg|thumb|Exterior "town" set in Valle Grande|500x500px]]

Valles Caldera has provided several [[filming location]]s,<ref>Martin, Craig (2003). ''Valle Grande: A History of the Baca Location No. 1'', All Season Publishing.</ref> most for films in the [[Western (genre)|Western genre]].  Some of these locations include exterior sets, such as the weathered "ranch house" that can be seen from the highway in Valle Grande, and a small "town".
* 1971 ''[[Shoot Out]]''
* 1977 ''[[Peter Lundy and the Medicine Hat Stallion]]'' (TV)
* 1982 ''[[Kenny Rogers as The Gambler|The Gambler]]'' (TV)
* 1994 ''[[Troublemakers (1994 film)|Troublemakers]]''
* 1995 ''[[Buffalo Girls]]'' (TV)
* 1997 ''[[Last Stand at Saber River]]'' (TV)
* 2003 ''[[The Missing (2003 film)|The Missing]]''
* 2007 ''[[Seraphim Falls]]''<ref>Hephner, Tracy (2006) ''See Us on the Silver Screen (Again!)'', La Ventana en los Valles, volume 1, number 2, page 3.</ref>
* 2010 ''[[Kites (film)]]'' (Hindi/Indian Film)
* 2013 ''[[The Lone Ranger (2013 film)|The Lone Ranger]]''
* 2012–2017 ''[[Longmire (TV series)]]''<ref>[http://markeemagazine.com/wp/cowboys-mobsters-and-concierge-doctors/ Cowboys, Mobsters, and Concierge Doctors; Markee Mag; October 27, 2012.]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Jemez Pueblo, New Mexico]]
* [[Valle Vidal]]

==Sources==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Fraser Goff, ''Valles Caldera: A Geologic History''.  2009, University of New Mexico Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8263-4590-5}}. [http://www.nmmagazine.com/books_aug09.php#valles Review] at ''[[New Mexico Magazine]]'': "No matter your interest in the Valles Caldera, you'll learn something new in Fraser Goff's new book."
* Coco Rae, [https://vcnp-trails.com "Hiking Trails in Valles Caldera National Preserve"]. 2020. The complete trail guide to VCNP.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Valles Caldera}}
* [https://www.nps.gov/vall/index.htm/index.htm Valles Caldera National Preserve], official website
* [http://www.if.ufrgs.br/ast/solar/eng/valles.htm The Physics Institute of Brazil's Valles Caldera website (English)]
* [http://www.geotimes.org/july07/article.html?id=Travels0707.html Geologic travel guide] from [[American Geological Institute]]
* [https://caldera-action.org/ Caldera Action], advocacy organization
* {{Wikivoyage inline|Valles Caldera National Preserve}}
{{National Preserves of the United States}}{{Protected areas of New Mexico}}{{authority control}}

[[Category:VEI-7 volcanoes]]
[[Category:Rift volcanoes]]
[[Category:Jemez Mountains]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Calderas of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Complex volcanoes]]
[[Category:Pleistocene calderas]]
[[Category:National Natural Landmarks in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Santa Fe National Forest]]
[[Category:Landforms of Rio Arriba County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Landforms of Sandoval County, New Mexico]]