Editing Vesper sparrow

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Pooecetes gramineus -USA-8 (cropped).jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Pooecetes gramineus'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T22721188A94703310 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22721188A94703310.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Pooecetes
| parent_authority = [[Spencer Fullerton Baird|Baird, SF]], 1858
| species = gramineus
| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin, JF]], 1789)
| range_map = Pooecetes gramineus map.svg
| range_map_caption = Range {{leftlegend|#FF7F2A|Breeding}}{{leftlegend|#FFDD55|Migration}}{{leftlegend|#7137C8|Year-round}}{{leftlegend|#5F8DD3|Nonbreeding}}
}}

The '''vesper sparrow''' ('''''Pooecetes gramineus''''') is a medium-sized [[New World sparrow]]. The only member of the genus '''''Pooecetes''''', it is a pale sparrow with brown streaks that breeds across the grasslands of northern North America. It migrates to winter in the southern United States and Mexico.

== Taxonomy ==
The vesper sparrow was [[Species description|formally described]] in 1789 by the German naturalist [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin]] in his revised and expanded edition of [[Carl Linnaeus]]'s ''[[Systema Naturae]]''. He placed it with the finches in the [[genus]] ''[[Fringilla]]'' and coined the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Fringilla graminea''. He gave the [[type locality (biology)|locality]] as New York.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Gmelin | first=Johann Friedrich | author-link=Johann Friedrich Gmelin| year=1789 | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | edition=13th | volume=1, Part 2 | language=Latin | location=Lipsiae [Leipzig] | publisher=Georg. Emanuel. Beer | page=922 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2656417 }}</ref> Gmelin based his own description on those for the "grass finch" that had been described by [[John Latham (ornithologist)|John Latham]] in 1783 and by [[Thomas Pennant]] in 1785.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Latham | first=John | author-link=John Latham (ornithologist) | year=1783 | title=A General Synopsis of Birds | volume=2, Part 1 | publisher=Printed for Leigh and Sotheby | location=London | page=273, n. 34 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/33728263 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Pennant | first=Thomas | author-link=Thomas Pennant | year=1785 | title=Arctic Zoology | volume=2 | publisher=Printed by Henry Hughs | location=London | page=375, n. 253 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32122151 }}</ref> The vesper sparrow is now the only species placed in the genus ''Pooecetes'' that was introduced in 1858 by the American naturalist [[Spencer Fullerton Baird|Spencer Baird]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Baird | first=Spencer F. | author-link=Spencer Fullerton Baird | year=1858 | title=Reports of explorations and surveys to ascertain the most practical and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean made under the direction of the secretary of war in 1853-1856 | volume=9 Birds | location=Washington | publisher=Beverly Tucker, printer | pages=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/11689164 xx], [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/11689183 xxxix], [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/11689639 439], [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/11689647 447] }}</ref><ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela C. Rasmussen | date=July 2023 | title=New World Sparrows, Bush Tanagers | work=IOC World Bird List Version 13.2 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/sparrows/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref> The genus name combines the [[Ancient Greek]] ποα (''poa'') meaning "grass" with οικητης (''oikētēs)'' meaning "dweller". The specific epithet ''gramineus'' is [[Latin]] meaning "grassy" or "grass-like".<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=[https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n314/mode/1up 314], [https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n177/mode/1up 177]}}</ref>

Three [[subspecies]] are recognised.<ref name=ioc/>
* ''P. g. gramineus'' ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin, JF]], 1789) – breeds in southeast Canada to east USA
* ''P. g. confinis'' [[Spencer Fullerton Baird|Baird, SF]], 1858 – breeds in southwest Canada and central west USA
* ''P. g. affinis'' Miller, GS, 1888 – breeds in northwest USA

== Description ==
The vesper sparrow is {{cvt|14|-|16|cm}} in overall length and weighs {{cvt|19.5|-|28.3|g}}.<ref name=hbw>{{ cite book | last=Rising | first=J.D. | year=2011 | chapter=Family Emberizidae (Buntings and New World sparrows) | editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=J. | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=A. | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=J. | title=Handbook of the Birds of the World | volume=16: Tanagers to New World Blackbirds | location=Barcelona, Spain | publisher=Lynx Edicions | isbn=978-84-96553-78-1 | pages=428–683 | chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0016unse/page/563/mode/1up | chapter-url-access=registration }}</ref> Adults have light brown upper-parts and light under-parts, both with darker streaking. There are three features that are unique to the vesper sparrow. The first is the presence of a small, white ring surrounding the eyes. The second is the flash of white tail feathers seen during flight. The third is the presence of a chestnut patch on the shoulder. However, this is usually not visible to an observer.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vesper Sparrow Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology|url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Vesper_Sparrow/overview|access-date=2021-03-15|website=www.allaboutbirds.org|language=en}}</ref>

Another notable characteristic is that some vesper sparrows, especially west of the [[Cascade Range|Cascades]], tend to have a more pinkish hue. They also do not have a bold eyeline found in some sparrows.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vesper Sparrow|url=http://birdweb.org/birdweb/bird/vesper_sparrow|access-date=2021-03-15|website=BirdWeb|language=en}}</ref>

The male sings from a higher perch, such as a shrub or fencepost, which indicates his ownership of the nesting territory. The musical song begins with two pairs of repeated whistled notes and ends in a series of trills, somewhat similar to that of the [[song sparrow]]. They have slurred whistles with one lower pitch followed by a second higher pitch. Furthermore, vesper sparrows make use of short descending trills as a part of their song.

== Distribution and habitat ==
Vesper sparrows are primarily found across Canada and most of the northern United States. Unlike some other sparrows in the regions they are found, vesper sparrows are located in lower elevations of grassy areas such as [[dry grassland]]s, sagebrush and fields.

Around September, with the onset of fall, vesper sparrows migrate to the eastern United States, the central United States, Mexico and the Gulf Coast. They return during March as spring arrives to the north.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vesper Sparrow|url=http://birdweb.org/birdweb/bird/vesper_sparrow|access-date=2021-03-15|website=BirdWeb}}</ref>

== Behavior ==
Vesper sparrows tend to be more grounded to the shrub area, often taking [[Dust bathing|dust baths]] and hopping around. These birds forage on the ground, mainly eating insects and seeds. Outside the [[nesting season]] they often feed in small flocks.<ref name="allaboutbirds.org">{{Cite web|title=Vesper Sparrow Life History, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology|url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Vesper_Sparrow/lifehistory|access-date=2021-03-15|website=www.allaboutbirds.org|language=en}}</ref>

=== Breeding ===
The [[Courtship display|courtship]] involves the male sparrow running with his wings raised and occasionally jumping around to sing its song. The cup shaped loose nest is placed on the ground. The clutch of 3–5 eggs, usually 4, is incubated by the female for 12–13 days. The chicks are fed by both parents and fledge after at least 9 days in the nest. Two broods are raised per season.<ref name=hbw/>

== Threats to population==
While the species as a whole is not threatened or endangered, it has faced declines in population. Between 1970 and 2014, the population decreased by 30% and currently has an estimated population of around 34 million.<ref name="allaboutbirds.org"/> The species has a delicate relationship with agricultural land. The loss of farmland due to [[land conversion|conversions]] to more developed regions has created a degree of [[habitat loss]] caused by a reduction in space available for nesting. However, the presence of farmland has also damaged the population. Improper cultivator operations including early and frequent harvesting have destroyed nests and eggs. Fallow strips around farmland have also contributed to habitat loss. The reduction in cover can increase exposure to predators.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wildlife Field Guide for New Jersey's Endangered and Threatened Species - Conserve Wildlife Foundation of New Jersey|url=http://www.conservewildlifenj.org/species/fieldguide/view/Pooecetes%20graminus/#:~:text=The%20vesper%20sparrow%20has%20been,large%20tracts%20of%20suitable%20habitat|access-date=2021-03-15|website=www.conservewildlifenj.org}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Jones, S. L., and J. E. Cornely. 2002. ''Vesper Sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus)''. In ''The Birds of North America'', No. 624 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA

==External links==
*[http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/id/framlst/i5400id.html Vesper Sparrow - ''Pooecetes gramineus''] - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter

{{Passeroidea|E.|state=collapsed}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q776555}}

[[Category:Passerellidae|vesper sparrow]]
[[Category:American sparrows|vesper sparrow]]
[[Category:Birds of North America]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1789|vesper sparrow]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin]]