Editing Vindhya Range

{{short description|Series of mountain ranges and highlands in north-central India}}
{{Redirect|Vindhya}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name              = Vindhya Range
| other_name        = Vindhyachal, Vindhyas
| etymology         ="Obstructor" or "Hunter" ([[Sanskrit]])
| photo             = Vindhya.jpg
| country           = [[India]]
| subdivision2_type = States
| subdivision2      = {{hlist|[[Madhya Pradesh]]|[[Chhattisgarh]]|[[Gujarat]]| Southern parts of [[Uttar Pradesh]]|[[Bihar]]}}
| borders_on        = {{hlist|[[Satpura Range]]|[[Chota Nagpur Plateau]]}}
| highest           = <!-- Note: Amarkantak is not considered a part of the Vindhyas according to the modern definition -->
| highest_location  = Sadbhawna Shikhar / Kalumar Peak in Damoh district hoti    = 752
<!-- Coordinates of the highest point -->
| coordinates       = {{coord|23|28|0|N|79|44|25|E|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| orogeny           =
<!-- Locator map; takes coordinates from "highest point" (and perhaps "range"; need to experiment and then correct this comment) -->
| map               = India
| map_caption       = Topographic map of India showing the highest point of the Vindhya range
}}
The '''Vindhya Range''' (also known as '''Vindhyachal''') ({{IPA|hns|ʋɪnd̪ʱjə|pron}}) is a complex, discontinuous [[Mountain chain|chain of mountain]] [[ridge]]s, hill ranges, highlands and plateau [[escarpment]]s in west-central [[India]].

Technically, the Vindhyas do not form a single mountain range in the geological sense. The exact extent of the Vindhyas is loosely defined, and historically, the term covered a number of distinct hill systems in [[central India]], including the one that is now known as the [[Satpura Range]]. Today, the term principally refers to the [[escarpment]] and its hilly extensions that runs north of and roughly parallel to the [[Narmada River]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]]. Depending on the definition, the range extends up to [[Gujarat]] in the west, [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]] in the north, and [[Chhattisgarh]] in the east. The average elevation of the Vindhyas is also dependent on different sources.

The word Vindhya is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''vaindh'' (to obstruct) and is in reference to a mythological story. The Vindhya range is also known as "Vindhyachala" or "Vindhyachal"; the suffix ''achala'' (Sanskrit) or ''achal'' ([[Hindi]]) refers to a mountain.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

The Vindhyas have a great significance in [[Hindu mythology|Indian mythology]] and [[History of India|history]]. Several ancient texts mention the Vindhyas as the southern boundary of the ''[[Āryāvarta]]'', the territory of the ancient [[Indo-Aryan peoples]]. Although today [[Indo-Aryan languages]] are also spoken south of the Vindhyas, the range continues to be considered as the traditional boundary between [[North India|north]] and [[south India]]. The former [[Vindhya Pradesh]] was named after the Vindhya Range.

== Etymology and names ==

According to the author of a commentary on ''[[Amarakosha]]'', the word Vindhya derives from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''vaindh'' (to obstruct). A mythological story (see [[#Cultural significance|below]]) states that the Vindhyas once obstructed the path of the sun, resulting in this name.<ref name="HHW_Meghaduta_1843">{{cite book |author=Kalidasa, HH Wilson |title=The Mégha dúta; or, Cloud messenger |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_GbQIAAAAQAAJ |year=1843 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_GbQIAAAAQAAJ/page/n28 19]–20}}</ref> The [[Ramayana]] states that the great mountain Vindhya that was growing incessantly and obstructing the path of the Sun stopped growing any more in obedience to Agastya's words.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.valmiki.iitk.ac.in/sloka?field_kanda_tid=3&language=dv&field_sarga_value=11|title=Sloka & Translation {{!}} Valmiki Ramayanam|website=www.valmiki.iitk.ac.in|access-date=2 April 2018}}</ref> According to another theory, the name "Vindhya" means "hunter" in [[Sanskrit]], and may refer to the [[adivasi|tribal]] [[hunter-gatherer]]s inhabiting the region.<ref name="Edward1885" />

The Vindhya range is also known as "Vindhyachala" or "Vindhyachal"; the suffix ''achala'' (Sanskrit) or ''achal'' (Hindi) refers to a mountain.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sYnXAAAAMAAJ |title=Myths and Traditions in India |author=Prabhakar Patil |publisher=BPI |year=2004 |isbn=9788186982792 |page=75 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQIwAQAAIAAJ |title=Cultural Rights in a Global World |editor=Anura Goonasekera |editor2=Cees J. Hamelink |editor3=Venkat Iyer |publisher=Eastern Universities Press |year=2003 |page=186 |isbn=9789812102355 }}</ref> In the [[Mahabharata]], the range is also referred to as ''Vindhyapadaparvata''. The Greek geographer [[Ptolemy]] called the range Vindius or Ouindion, describing it as the source of Namados ([[Narmada]]) and Nanagouna ([[Tapti]]) rivers. The "Daksinaparvata" ("Southern Mountain") mentioned in the [[Kaushitaki Upanishad]] is also identified with the Vindhyas.<ref name="PKB" />

== Extent ==

The Vindhyas do not form a single range in the proper geological sense: the hills collectively known as the Vindhyas do not lie along an [[anticline|anticlinal]] or [[syncline|synclinal]] ridge.<ref name="WWHunter1908" /> The Vindhya range is actually a group of discontinuous chain of mountain [[ridge]]s, hill ranges, highlands and plateau [[escarpment]]s. The term "Vindhyas" is defined by convention, and therefore, the exact definition of the Vindhya range has varied at different times in history.

=== Historical definitions ===
[[File:Vindhyas Mountain Range seen from Malwa Plateau Mandu Mandav Madhya Pradesh India 2009.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Vindhya range seen from Mandav, Madhya Pradesh]]
Earlier, the term "Vindhyas" was used in a wider sense and included a number of hill ranges between the [[Indo-Gangetic plain]] and the [[Deccan Plateau]]. According to the various definitions mentioned in the older texts, the Vindhyas extend up to the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] in the south and the [[Ganges River|Ganges]] in the north.<ref name="HHW_Meghaduta_1843" />

In certain [[Puranas]], the term Vindhya specifically covers the mountain range located between the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] and the [[Tapti River|Tapti]] rivers; that is, the one which is now known as the [[Satpura Range]].<ref name="Edward1885">{{cite book |author=Edward Balfour |title=The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Commercial Industrial, and Scientific: Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iU0OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1017 |year=1885 |publisher=Bernard Quaritch |pages=1017–1018 }}</ref><ref name="James1853">{{cite book |author=James Outram |title=A few brief Memoranda of some of the public services rendered by Lieut.-Colonel Outram, C. B.: Printed for private circulation |url=https://archive.org/details/fewbriefmemorand00outr |year=1853 |publisher=Smith Elder and Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/fewbriefmemorand00outr/page/31 31] }}</ref> The [[Varaha Purana]] uses the name "Vindhya-pada" ("foot of the Vindhyas") for the Satpura range.

Several ancient Indian texts and inscriptions (e.g. the ''Nasik Prasasti'' of [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]]) mention three mountain ranges in Central India: Vindhya (or "Vindhya proper"), [[Riksha Mountains|Rksa]] (also Rksavat or Riksha) and [[Pariyatra Mountains|Pariyatra]] (or Paripatra). The three ranges are included in the seven ''Kula Parvatas'' ("clan mountains") of [[Bharatavarsha]], that is, India. The exact identification of these three ranges is difficult due to contrasting descriptions in the various texts. For example, the [[Kurma Purana|Kurma]], [[Matsya Purana|Matsya]] and [[Brahmanda Purana|Brahmanda]] Puranas mention Vindhya as the source of [[Tapti River|Tapti]]; while [[Vishnu Purana|Vishnu]] and [[Brahma Purana|Brahma]] Puranas mention the Rksa as its source.<ref name="Panda2007">{{cite book |author=Harihar Panda |title=Professor H.C. Raychaudhuri, as a Historian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f1XMtc2Q97IC&pg=PA130 |year=2007 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-81-7211-210-3 |pages=128–130}}</ref> Some texts use the term Vindhyas to describe all the hills in Central India.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

In one passage, [[Valmiki]]'s [[Ramayana]] describes Vindhya as being situated to the south of [[Kishkindha]] (Ramayana IV-46. 17), which is identified with a part of the present-day [[Karnataka]]. It further implies that the sea was located just to the south of the Vindhyas, and [[Lanka]] was located across this sea. Many scholars have attempted to explain this anomaly in different ways. According to one theory, the term "Vindhyas" covered a number of mountains to the south of the Indo-Aryan territories at the time Ramayana was written. Others, such as [[Frederick Eden Pargiter]], believe that there was another mountain in South India, with the same name.<ref name="Vasudev1975">{{cite book |author=Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi |title=Literary and Historical Studies in Indology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X0JUwf2BXVAC&pg=PA212 |date=1 January 1975 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0417-3 |page=212 }}</ref> [[Madhav Vinayak Kibe]] placed the location of Lanka in [[Central India]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Location of Lanka |author=Madhav Vinayak Kibe |publisher=Manohar Granthamala |location=Pune |year=1947 |oclc=33286332 |page=16 |author-link=Madhav Vinayak Kibe }}</ref>

The [[Gopika Cave Inscription|Barabar Cave inscription]] of the [[Maukhari]] ruler Anantavarman mentions the Nagarjuni hill of [[Bihar]] as a part of the Vindhyas.<ref name="PKB" />

=== Present-day definition ===
[[File:Indiahills.png|thumb|upright=1.36|Map of prominent mountain ranges in India, showing Vindhyas in central India]]
Today, the definition of the Vindhyas is primarily restricted to the Central Indian escarpments, hills and highlands located to the north of the [[Narmada River]].<ref name="Edward1885" /> Some of these are actually distinct hill systems.<ref name="WWHunter2013">{{cite book |author=W.W. Hunter |title=The Indian Empire: Its People, History and Products |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdv7AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-38301-4 |page=35 }}</ref>

The western end of the Vindhya range is located in the state of [[Gujarat]], near the state's border with [[Rajasthan]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]], at the eastern side of the [[Kathiawar]] peninsula. A series of hills connects the Vindhya extension to the [[Aravalli Range]] near [[Champaner]]. The Vindhya range rises in height east of [[Chhota Udaipur]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://guj-nwrws.gujarat.gov.in/downloads/phy_geology_gujarat_eng.pdf |title=Physical Geology of Gujarat |author=VN Kulkarni |publisher=Public Works Department, Government of Gujarat |access-date=20 June 2014 }}</ref>

The principal Vindhya range forms the southern escarpment of the Central Indian upland. It runs roughly parallel to the Naramada river in the east-west direction, forming the southern wall of the [[Malwa]] plateau in Madhya Pradesh.

The eastern portion of the Vindhyas comprises multiple chains, as the range divides into branches east of Malwa. A southern chain of Vindhyas runs between the upper reaches of the [[Son River|Son]] and Narmada rivers to meet the Satpura Range in the [[Maikal Range|Maikal Hills]] near [[Amarkantak]]. A northern chain of the Vindhyas continues eastwards as [[Bhander Plateau]] and [[Kaimur Range]], which runs north of the [[Son River]].<ref name="Pradeep2007">{{cite book |author=Pradeep Sharma |title=Human Geography: The Land |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RxCzONmxUp0C&pg=PA209 |year=2007 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-81-8356-290-4 |page=209 }}</ref> This extended range runs through what was once [[Vindhya Pradesh]], reaching up to the [[Kaimur district]] of Bihar. The branch of the Vindhya range spanning across [[Bundelkhand]] is known as the Panna range.<ref name="PKB">{{cite book |title=Historical Geography of Madhya Pradesh from Early Records |author=PK Bhattacharya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=njYpsvmr2dsC&pg=PA60 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-3394-4 |year=1977 |pages=60–69}}</ref> Another northern extension (known as the Vindhyachal hills) runs up to [[Uttar Pradesh]], stopping before the shores of [[Ganges|Ganga]] at multiple places, including [[Vindhyachal]] and [[Chunar]] in [[Mirzapur District]]. 

The '''Vindhyan tableland''' is a plateau that lies to the north of the central part of the range. The [[Rewa Plateau|Rewa]]-[[Bijawar-Panna Plateau|Panna]] plateaus are also collectively known as the Vindhya plateau.

== Elevation ==

Different sources vary on the average elevation of the Vindhyas, depending on their definition of the range. M. C. Chaturvedi mentions the average elevation as {{convert|300|m}}.<ref name="Mahesh2012">{{cite book |author=Mahesh Chandra Chaturvedi |title=Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna Waters: Advances in Development and Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DFvVY4jAJfgC&pg=PA19|date=27 August 2012 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-7376-2 |page=19 }}</ref> Pradeep Sharma states that the "general elevation" of the Vindhyas is {{convert|300|-|650|m}}, with the range rarely going over {{convert|700|m}} during its {{convert|1200|km}} extent.<ref name="Pradeep2007" />

The highest point of the Vindhyas is the Sad-bhawna Shikhar ("Goodwill Peak"), which lies {{convert|2467|ft|m|order=flip}} above the sea level.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.diethatta.nic.in/tour.htm |title=Places of Interest |publisher=[[District Institute for Education and Training|DIET]] [[Hatta, Madhya Pradesh|Hatta]] |access-date=20 June 2014 }}</ref> Also known as the Kalumar peak or Kalumbe peak, it lies near [[Singrampur]] in the [[Damoh district]], in the area known as Bhanrer or Panna hills.<ref name="WWHunter1908">{{cite book |author=William Wilson Hunter |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O39DAAAAYAAJ |year=1908 |publisher=Clarendon Press |page=316 }}</ref> Historical texts include [[Amarkantak]] ({{convert|1000|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=x|+ or }}+) in the Vindhyas, but today, it is considered a part of the [[Maikal Range]], which is considered as an extension of the Satpuras.<ref name="KSUnni1996">{{cite book |author=K. Sankaran Unni |title=Ecology of River Narmada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00jcLwUPhrwC&pg=PA15 |year=1996 |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=978-81-7024-765-4 |page=15 }}</ref>

{{Wide image|Vindhyas as seen from Bhimbetka.jpg|1000px|Vindhyas as seen from [[Bhimbetka]]}}

== Cultural significance ==
[[File:Map of Vedic India.png|thumb|right|The Vindhyas are seen as the southern boundary of [[Aryavarta]] in this map. Note that historically, the term "Vindhyas" covered the Satpura range that lies to the south of Narmada.]]

The Vindhyas are regarded as the traditional geographical boundary between northern and southern India,<ref>{{cite book |author=Noboru Karashima |author-link=Noboru Karashima |title=A Concise History of South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-809977-2 |page=xviii }}</ref> and have a distinguished status in both mythology and [[geography of India]].<ref name="HHW_Meghaduta_1843" /> In the ancient Indian texts, the Vindhyas are seen as the demarcating line between the territories of the [[List of Rigvedic tribes|Indo-Aryans]] and that of the others.<ref name="Edward1885" /> The most ancient Hindu texts consider it as the southern boundary of [[Aryavarta]].<ref name="HHW_Meghaduta_1843" /> The [[Mahabharata]] mentions that the [[Nishada Kingdom|Nishadas]] and other [[Mleccha]] tribes reside in the forests of the Vindhyas.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ved Vyasa |others=Translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli |title=The Mahabharata (12.58.3211) |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12a058.htm |year=1886 |publisher=Bhārata Press }}</ref> Although the Indo-Aryan languages (such as [[Marathi language|Marathi]] and [[Konkani language|Konkani]]) spread to the south of Vindhyas later, the Vindhyas continued to be seen as the traditional boundary between the north and the south of India.<ref name="HHW_Meghaduta_1843" /><ref name="MSKohli2002" />

Vindhyas appear prominently in the Indian mythological tales. Although the Vindhyas are not very high, historically, they were considered highly inaccessible and dangerous due to dense vegetation and the hostile tribes residing there.<ref name="Stephen1880">{{cite journal | title=Influence of the Aryans upon the Aboriginal speech of India |author=John Avery |journal=The American Antiquarian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E64BAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA122 |volume=3 |year=1880 |publisher=Jameson & Morse |page=122 }}</ref><ref name="Jurgen2012">{{cite book |author=Jürgen Neuß |title=Narmadāparikramā – Circumambulation of the Narmadā River: On the Tradition of a Unique Hindu Pilgrimage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5TYd6pXmdIC&pg=PA20 |year=2012 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-22857-3 |page=20 }}</ref> In the older Sanskrit texts, such as the [[Ramayana]], they are described as the unknown territory infested with [[Human cannibalism|cannibal]]s and [[demon]]s.<ref name="Brennan2006">{{cite book |author=Stephen Vincent Brennan |title=Classic Legendary Hero Stories: Extraordinary Tales of Honor, Courage, and Valor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGqD-t83o8AC&pg=PA5 |date=January 2006 |publisher=Globe Pequot Press |isbn=978-1-59228-872-4 |page=5 }}</ref> The later texts describe the Vindhya range as the residence of fierce form of [[Shakti]] (goddess [[Kali]] or [[Durga]]), who has lived there since slaying the demons. She is described as [[Vindhyavasini]] ("Vindhya dweller"), and a temple dedicated to her is located in the [[Vindhyachal]] town of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="Cynthia1998">{{cite book |chapter=Vindhyavasini: Local Goddess yet Great Goddess |author=Cynthia Ann Humes |editor=John Stratton Hawley |editor2=Donna M. Wulff |title=Devī: Goddesses of India |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZrV3kOpMt0C&pg=PA49 |year=1998 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1491-2 |page=49 |author-link=Cynthia Ann Humes }}</ref><ref name="Vanamali2008">{{cite book |author=Vanamali |title=Shakti: Realm of the Divine Mother |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N5Ju3nWR52UC&pg=PA166 |date=21 July 2008 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-1-59477-785-1 |page=166 }}</ref> The [[Mahabharata]] mentions the Vindhyas as the "eternal abode" of Kali.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ved Vyasa |others=Translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli |title=The Mahabharata (4.6.232) |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m04/m04006.htm |year=1886 |publisher=Bhārata Press }}</ref>

According to one legend, the Vindhya mountain once competed with the [[Mount Meru]], growing so high that it obstructed the sun. The sage [[Agastya]] then asked Vindhya to lower itself, in order to facilitate his passage across to the south. In reverence for Agastya, the Vindhya lowered its height and promised not to grow until Agastya returned to the north. Agastya settled in the south, and the Vindhya mountain, true to its word, never grew further.<ref name="Roshen2014">{{cite book |author=Roshen Dalal |title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87k0AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124 |year=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-81-8475-396-7 |page=124 }}</ref>

The Kishkindha Kanda of Valmiki's Ramayana mentions that [[Mayasura|Maya]] built a mansion in the Vindhyas.<ref name="Parmesh2001">{{cite book |author=Swami Parmeshwaranand |title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QxPCBCk3wVIC&pg=PA871 |year=2001 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=978-81-7625-226-3 |page=871 }}</ref> In ''[[Dashakumaracharita]]'', the King Rajahamsa of Magadha and his ministers create a new colony in the Vindhya forest, after being forced out of their kingdom following a war defeat.
[[File:Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India (1871) (14596088869).jpg|thumb|right|A map of the "Vindhyan Series" from Geological Survey of India (1871)]]

The Vindhyas are one of the only two mountain ranges mentioned in the [[Jana Gana Mana|national anthem of India]], the other being the Himalayas.<ref name="Edgar2008">{{cite book |author1=Edgar Thorpe |author2=Showick Thorpe |title=Pearson General Knowledge Manual 2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLaKRbzU_bYC&pg=RA1-PA326 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-2300-5 |pages=323–326}}</ref>

== Rivers ==

Several tributaries of the Ganga-Yamuna system originate from the Vindhyas.<ref name="MSKohli2002">{{cite book |author=M.S. Kohli |title=Mountains of India: Tourism, Adventure and Pilgrimage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIs4zv17HHwC&pg=PA32 |year=2002 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-135-1 |page=32 }}</ref> These include [[Chambal River|Chambal]], [[Betwa River|Betwa]], [[Dhasan River|Dhasan]],[[Sunar River|Sunar]], [[Ken River|Ken]], [[Tamsa River|Tamsa]], [[Kali Sindh River|Kali Sindh]] and [[Parbati River (Madhya Pradesh)|Parbati]]. The northern slopes of the Vindhyas are drained by these rivers.

[[Narmada River|Narmada]] and [[Son River|Son]] rivers drain the southern slopes of the Vindhyas. Both these rivers rise in the [[Maikal Hills|Maikal hills]], which are now defined as an extension of the Satpuras, although several older texts use the term Vindhyas to cover them (see [[#Historical definitions|Historical definitions]] above).

== Geology and palaeontology ==
The "Vindhyan Supergroup" is one of the largest and thickest [[sedimentary rock|sedimentary]] [[succession (geology)|successions]] in the world.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Age of the Vindhyan Supergroup: A review of recent findings |journal=Journal of Earth System Science |date=February 2006  |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=149–160 |author=Jyotiranjan S Ray |doi=10.1007/BF02703031 |s2cid=129093679 |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/jessci/feb06/vin-10.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The earliest known [[multicellular]] [[fossil]]s of [[eukaryote]]s ([[filamentous algae]]) have been discovered from Vindhya basin dating back to 1.6 to 1.7&nbsp;billion years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal
| date =May 2009
| pages = 7729–7734
| issue = 19
| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
| issn = 0027-8424
| doi = 10.1073/pnas.0812460106
| pmc = 2683128
| pmid = 19416859
| volume = 106
| title = The controversial "Cambrian" fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older
| bibcode = 2009PNAS..106.7729B
| last1 = Bengtson | first1 = S.
| last2 = Belivanova | first2 = V.
| last3 = Rasmussen | first3 = B.
| last4 = Whitehouse | first4 = M. | url = https://espace.curtin.edu.au/bitstream/20.500.11937/10114/2/134874_134874.pdf| doi-access = free
}}</ref> Shelled creatures are documented to have first evolved at the start of the Cambrian 'explosion of life', about 550 million years ago.<ref>{{cite news |author=Rex Dalton & Killugudi Jayaraman |title=Indian fossil find resolves fraud accusations |publisher=Nature |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090422/full/news.2009.383.html |doi=10.1038/news.2009.383 |date=22 April 2009}}</ref>

== See also==
* [[Geology of India]]
* [[Geology of the Himalayas]]
* [[Central Highlands (India)]]

== References ==
{{Commons category|Vindhyas}}
{{reflist}}

{{GeoSouthAsia}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mountain ranges of India]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian mountains]]
[[Category:Geography of Malwa]]
[[Category:Landforms of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Geography of Ujjain]]
[[Category:Mountains in Buddhism]]