Editing Weather satellite

{{short description|Type of satellite designed to record the state of the Earth's atmosphere}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{distinguish|Atmospheric satellite}}
[[File:GOES-R SPACECRAFT.jpg|300px|thumb|GOES-16, a United States weather satellite of the meteorological-satellite service]]

A '''weather satellite''' or '''meteorological satellite''' is a type of [[Earth observation satellite]] that is primarily used to monitor the [[weather]] and [[climate]] of the Earth.  Satellites are mainly of two types: [[polar orbit]]ing (covering the entire Earth asynchronously) or [[geostationary]] (hovering over the same spot on the [[equator]]).<ref>[[NESDIS]]. [http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/satellites.html <nowiki>Satellites.[link not working]</nowiki>] Retrieved on July 4, 2008. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704195947/http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/satellites.html |date=July 4, 2008 }}</ref>

While primarily used to detect the development and movement of storm systems and other cloud patterns, [[meteorology|meteorological]] satellites can also detect other phenomena such as city lights, fires, effects of pollution, [[auroral light|aurora]]s, sand and [[dust storm]]s, snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of [[ocean current]]s, and energy flows. Other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites. Weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from [[Mount St. Helens]] and activity from other volcanoes such as [[Mount Etna]].<ref>[[NOAA]]. [http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=15216 NOAA Satellites, Scientists Monitor Mt. St. Helens for Possible Eruption.] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120910225555/http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=15216 |date=September 10, 2012 }} Retrieved on July 4, 2008.</ref> Smoke from [[forest fires|fires]] in the western United States such as [[Colorado]] and [[Utah]] have also been monitored.

[[El Niño]] and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images.  The Antarctic [[ozone hole]] is mapped from weather satellite data.  Collectively, weather satellites flown by the U.S., China, Europe, India, Russia, and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch.

==History==
{{further|First images of Earth from space}}
{{Globalize|section|the Western world|2name=the West|date=July 2024}}
[[Image:TIROS-1-Earth.png|right|thumb|The first television image of Earth from space from the TIROS-1 weather satellite in 1960]]
[[File:ESSA-9 satellite photo mosaic.PNG|thumb|A mosaic of photographs of the [[United States]] from the [[ESSA-9]] weather satellite, taken on June 26, 1969]]

===1950s===
As early as 1946, the idea of cameras in orbit to observe the weather was being developed.  This was due to sparse data observation coverage and the expense of using cloud cameras on rockets.  By 1958, the early prototypes for TIROS and Vanguard (developed by the [[United States Army Signal Corps|Army Signal Corps]]) were created.<ref name="first">{{cite book|title=Weather From Above: America's Meteorological Satellites|author=Janice Hill|pages=4–7|year=1991|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|isbn=978-0-87474-394-4}}</ref>  The first weather satellite, [[Vanguard 2]], was launched on February&nbsp;17, 1959.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4202/chap12.html | title = VANGUARD - A HISTORY, CHAPTER 12, SUCCESS - AND AFTER | publisher = NASA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509055523/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4202/chap12.html|archive-date=2008-05-09}}</ref>  It was designed to measure cloud cover and resistance, but a poor axis of rotation and its elliptical orbit kept it from collecting a notable amount of useful data.  The [[Explorer 6]] and [[Explorer 7]] satellites also contained weather-related experiments.<ref name="first"/>

===1960s===
The first weather satellite to be considered a success was [[TIROS-1]], launched by NASA on April&nbsp;1, 1960.<ref name="apupi">{{cite news |title=U.S. Launches Camera Weather Satellite |work=[[The Fresno Bee]] |publisher=[[Associated Press|AP]] and [[United Press International|UPI]] |pages=1a, 4a |date=April 1, 1960}}</ref>  TIROS operated for 78&nbsp;days and proved to be much more successful than Vanguard&nbsp;2. Other early weather satellite programs include the 1962 Defense Satellite Applications Program (DSAP)<ref>[https://www.spoc.spaceforce.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/2381749 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program] US Space Force</ref> and the 1964 Soviet [[Meteor (satellite)|Meteor series]].

[[Television Infrared Observation Satellite|TIROS]] paved the way for the [[Nimbus program]], whose technology and findings are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched since then.  Beginning with the [[Nimbus 3]] satellite in 1969, temperature information through the [[troposphere|tropospheric]] column began to be retrieved by satellites from the eastern Atlantic and most of the Pacific Ocean, which led to significant improvements to [[weather forecasting|weather forecasts]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=[[Mariners Weather Log]]|title=SIRS and the Improved Marine Weather Forecast|author=National Environmental Satellite Center|publisher=Environmental Science Services Administration|pages=12–15|volume=14|number=1|date=January 1970}}</ref>

The ESSA and NOAA polar orbiting satellites followed suit from the late 1960s onward.  Geostationary satellites followed, beginning with the [[Applications Technology Satellites|ATS]] and [[Synchronous Meteorological Satellite|SMS]] series in the late&nbsp;1960s and early&nbsp;1970s, then continuing with the GOES series from the 1970s onward.  Polar orbiting satellites such as [[QuikScat]] and [[Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission|TRMM]] began to relay wind information near the ocean's surface starting in the late&nbsp;1970s, with microwave imagery which resembled radar displays, which significantly improved the diagnoses of [[tropical cyclone]] strength, intensification, and location during the 2000s and 2010s.

===1970s===
In Europe, the first [[Meteosat]] [[geostationary]] operational meteorological satellite, Meteosat-1, was launched in 1977 on a Delta launch vehicle. The satellite was a [[spin stabilisation|spin-stabilised]] cylindrical design, 2.1&nbsp;m in diameter and 3.2&nbsp;m tall, rotating at approx. 100 rpm and carrying the [[Meteosat Visible and Infrared Imager]] (MVIRI) instrument. Successive Meteosat first generation satellites were launched, on European Ariane-4 launchers from Kourou in French Guyana, up to and including Meteosat-7 which acquired data from 1997 until 2017, operated initially by the [[European Space Agency]] and later by the [[European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites]] (EUMETSAT). 

Japan has launched nine [[Himawari (satellites)|Himawari]] satellites beginning in 1977. 

===1980s===
Starting in 1988 China has launched twenty-one [[Fengyun]] satellites.

===2000s===
The [[Meteosat Second Generation]] (MSG) satellites - also spin stabilised although physically larger and twice the mass of the first generation - were developed by ESA with European industry and in cooperation with [[EUMETSAT]] who then operate the satellites from their headquarters in Darmstadt, Germany with this same approach followed for all subsequent European meteorological satellites. [[Meteosat-8]], the first MSG satellite, was launched in 2002 on an [[Ariane-5]] launcher, carrying the [[Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager]] (SEVIRI) and [[Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget]] (GERB) instruments, along with payloads to support the [[COSPAS-SARSAT]] Search and Rescue (SAR) and [[Argos (satellite system)|ARGOS]] Data Collection Platform (DCP) missions. SEVIRI provided an increased number of spectral channels over MVIRI and imaged the full-Earth disc at double the rate. Meteosat-9 was launched to complement Meteosat-8 in 2005, with the second pair consisting of Meteosat-10 and Meteosat-11 launched in 2012 and 2015, respectively. 

In 2006, the first European low-Earth orbit operational meteorological satellite, [[Metop]]-A was launched into a [[Sun-synchronous orbit]] at 817 km altitude by a Soyuz launcher from Baikonur, Kazakhstan. This operational satellite - which forms the space segment of the [[EUMETSAT]] Polar System (EPS) - built on the heritage from ESA's [[European Remote-Sensing Satellite|ERS]] and [[Envisat]] experimental missions, and was followed at six-year intervals by Metop-B and Metop-C - the latter launched from French Guyana in a [[Soyuz at the Guiana Space Centre|"Europeanised" Soyuz]]. Each carry thirteen different passive and active instruments ranging in design from imagers and sounders to a scatterometer and a radio-occultation instrument. The satellite service module is based on the [[SPOT-5]] bus, while the payload suite is a combination of new and heritage instruments from both Europe and the US under the Initial Joint Polar System agreement between EUMETSAT and NOAA. 

===2010s===
The [[DSCOVR]] satellite, owned by NOAA, was launched in 2015 and became the first deep space satellite that can observe and predict space weather. It can detect potentially dangerous weather such as [[solar wind]] and [[geomagnetic storm]]s. This is what has given humanity the capability to make accurate and preemptive space weather forecasts since the late 2010s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=DSCOVR: Deep Space Climate Observatory {{!}} NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS)|url=https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/content/dscovr-deep-space-climate-observatory|access-date=2021-08-05|website=www.nesdis.noaa.gov}}</ref>

===2020s===
The [[Meteosat Third Generation]] (MTG) programme launched its first satellite, Meteosat-12, in 2022, and featured a number of changes over its predecessors in support of its mission to gather data for weather forecasting and climate monitoring. The MTG satellites are three-axis stabilised rather than spin stabilised, giving greater flexibility in satellite and instrument design. The MTG system features separate Imager and Sounder satellite models that share the same satellite bus, with a baseline of three satellites - two Imagers and one Sounder - forming the operational configuration. The imager satellites carry the [[Flexible Combined Imager]] (FCI), succeeding MVIRI and SEVIRI to give even greater resolution and spectral coverage, scanning the full Earth disc every ten minutes, as well as a new Lightning Imager (LI) payload. The sounder satellites carry the Infrared Sounder (IRS) and Ultra-violet Visible Near-infrared (UVN) instruments. UVN is part of the [[European Commission]]'s [[Copernicus programme]] and fulfils the [[Sentinel-4]] mission to monitor air quality, trace gases and aerosols over Europe hourly at high spatial resolution. Two MTG satellites - one Imager and one Sounder - will operate in close proximity from the 0-deg geostationary location over western Africa to observe the eastern Atlantic Ocean, Europe, Africa and the Middle East, while a second imager satellite will operate from 9.5-deg East to perform a Rapid Scanning mission over Europe. MTG continues Meteosat support to the ARGOS and Search and Rescue missions. MTG-I1 launched in one of the last Ariane-5 launches, with the subsequent satellites planned to launch in [[Ariane 6|Ariane-6]] when it enters service. 

A second generation of Metop satellites ([[MetOp-SG]]) is in advanced development with launch of the first satellite foreseen in 2025. As with MTG, Metop-SG will launch on Ariane-6 and comprise two satellite models to be operated in pairs in replacement of the single first generation satellites to continue the EPS mission.

==Observation==
[[File:Weather Satellite.jpg|thumb|200px|right|These [[meteorological-satellite service]], however, see more than clouds and cloud systems]]
Observation is typically made via different 'channels' of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], in particular, the [[Visible spectrum|visible]] and [[infrared]] portions.

Some of these channels include:<ref name="EUMETSAT - MSG Spectrum">[http://www.eumetsat.int/groups/ops/documents/document/pdf_ten_052562_msg1_spctrsp.pdf EUMETSAT – MSG Spectrum] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128071452/http://www.eumetsat.int/groups/ops/documents/document/pdf_ten_052562_msg1_spctrsp.pdf |date=November 28, 2007 }} (PDF)</ref><ref name="EUMETSAT - MFG PL">{{Cite web |url=http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/What_We_Do/Satellites/Meteosat_First_Generation/Space_Segment/SP_1119958330356?l=en |title=EUMETSAT – MFG Payload |access-date=November 21, 2007 |archive-date=November 25, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081125143238/http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/What_We_Do/Satellites/Meteosat_First_Generation/Space_Segment/SP_1119958330356?l=en |url-status=dead }}</ref>

*''Visible and Near Infrared:'' 0.6–1.6&nbsp;μm{{snd}}for recording cloud cover during the day
*''Infrared:'' 3.9–7.3&nbsp;μm (water vapor), 8.7–13.4&nbsp;μm (thermal imaging)

===Visible spectrum===
Visible-light images from weather satellites during local daylight hours are easy to interpret even by the average person, clouds, cloud systems such as fronts and tropical storms, lakes, forests, mountains, snow ice, fires, and pollution such as smoke, smog, dust and haze are readily apparent.  Even wind can be determined by cloud patterns, alignments and movement from successive photos.<ref>{{cite report|author1=A. F. Hasler|author2=K. Palaniappan|author3=C. Kambhammetu|author4=P. Black|author5=E. Uhlhorn|author6=D. Chesters|url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/79/11/1520-0477_1998_079_2483_hrwfwt_2_0_co_2.xml?tab_body=fulltext-display|title=High-Resolution Wind Fields within the Inner Core and Eye of a Mature Tropical Cyclone from GOES 1-min Images|access-date=July 4, 2008}}</ref>

===Infrared spectrum===
The [[Thermography|thermal]] or infrared images recorded by sensors called scanning [[radiometer]]s enable a trained analyst to determine cloud heights and types, to calculate land and surface water temperatures, and to locate ocean surface features. [[Infrared]] satellite imagery can be used effectively for [[tropical cyclone]]s with a visible [[eye (cyclone)|eye]] pattern, using the [[Dvorak technique]], where the difference between the temperature of the warm eye and the surrounding cold cloud tops can be used to determine its intensity (colder cloud tops generally indicate a more intense storm).<ref>[[Chris Landsea]]. [http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/H1.html Subject: H1) What is the Dvorak technique and how is it used?] Retrieved on January 3, 2009.</ref>  Infrared pictures depict ocean eddies or vortices and map currents such as the Gulf Stream which are valuable to the shipping industry. [[Fishermen]] and farmers are interested in knowing land and water temperatures to protect their crops against frost or increase their catch from the sea. Even El Niño phenomena can be spotted. Using color-digitized techniques, the gray shaded [[thermographic camera|thermal images]] can be converted to color for easier identification of desired information.

==Types==
[[File:Himawari-8 true-color 2015-01-25 0230Z.png|thumb|The geostationary [[Himawari 8]] satellite's first true-colour composite PNG image]]
[[File:First Full Disk Image from GOES-17 as GOES West (40118037553).jpg|thumb|The geostationary [[GOES-17]] satellite's Level 1B Calibrated Radiances - True Colour Composite PNG image]]
Each meteorological satellite is designed to use one of two different classes of orbit: [[geostationary orbit|geostationary]] and [[polar orbit]]ing.

===Geostationary===
{{Redirect|geostationary meteorological satellite|the Japanese satellites called "Geostationary Meteorological Satellite"|Himawari (satellite)}}

Geostationary weather satellites orbit the Earth above the [[equator]] at altitudes of 35,880&nbsp;km (22,300 miles).  Because of this [[orbit]], they remain stationary with respect to the rotating Earth and thus can record or transmit images of the entire hemisphere below continuously with their visible-light and infrared sensors. The news media use the geostationary photos in their daily weather presentation as single images or made into movie loops. These are also available on the city forecast pages of www.noaa.gov (example Dallas, TX).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forecast.weather.gov/MapClick.php?lat=32.810361684869015&lon=-96.73736572265625&site=fwd&smap=1&marine=1&unit=0&lg=en|title=National Weather Service|first=US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather|last=Service}}</ref>

Several geostationary meteorological spacecraft are in operation. The United States' [[Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite|GOES series]] has three in operation: [[GOES 15|GOES-15]], [[GOES-16]] and [[GOES-17]]. GOES-16 and-17 remain stationary over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tollefson|first=Jeff|date=2 March 2018|title=Latest US weather satellite highlights forecasting challenges|journal=Nature|volume=555|issue=7695|pages=154|doi=10.1038/d41586-018-02630-w|bibcode=2018Natur.555..154T|doi-access=free}}</ref> GOES-15 was retired in early July 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.goes-r.gov/users/transitionToOperations17.html|title=GOES-17 Transition to Operations │ GOES-R Series|website=www.goes-r.gov|access-date=2019-05-26}}</ref>

The satellite [[GOES 13]] that was previously owned by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) was transferred to the [[United States Space Force|U.S. Space Force]] in 2019 and renamed the EWS-G1; becoming the first geostationary weather satellite to be owned and operated by the U.S. Department of Defense.<ref>Balmaseda M, A Barros, S Hagos, B Kirtman, H-Y Ma, Y Ming, A Pendergrass, V Tallapragada, E Thompson. 2020. "NOAA-DOE Precipitation Processes and Predictability Workshop." U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA; DOE/SC-0203; NOAA Technical Report OAR CPO-9</ref>

[[Russia]]'s new-generation weather satellite [[Elektro-L No.1]] operates at 76°E over the Indian Ocean. The Japanese have the [[MTSAT]]-2 located over the mid Pacific at 145°E and the [[Himawari 8]] at 140°E. The Europeans have four in operation, [[Meteosat 8|Meteosat-8]] (41.5°E) and Meteosat-9 (0°) over the Atlantic Ocean and have Meteosat-6 (63°E) and Meteosat-7 (57.5°E) over the Indian Ocean. China currently has four [[Fengyun]] (风云) geostationary satellites (FY-2E at 86.5°E, FY-2F at 123.5°E, FY-2G at 105°E and FY-4A at 104.5 °E) operated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nsmc.cma.gov.cn/NSMC/Channels/100003.html|website=National Satellite Meteorological Center of CMA|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150828041011/http://www.nsmc.cma.gov.cn/NSMC/Channels/100003.html|archive-date=August 28, 2015|url-status=dead|trans-title=Satellite Operation|title=卫星运行}}</ref> [[India]] also operates geostationary satellites called [[INSAT]]  which carry instruments for meteorological purposes.

===Polar orbiting===
[[Image:Parabolic-antenna-LEO.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Computer-controlled motorized parabolic dish antenna for tracking [[Low Earth orbit|LEO]] weather satellites.]]Polar orbiting weather satellites circle the Earth at a typical altitude of 850&nbsp;km (530 miles) in a north to south (or vice versa) path, passing over the poles in their continuous flight.  Polar orbiting weather satellites are in [[sun-synchronous orbit]]s, which means they are able to observe any place on Earth and will view every location twice each day with the same general lighting conditions due to the near-constant local [[solar time]]. Polar orbiting weather satellites offer a much better resolution than their geostationary counterparts due their closeness to the Earth.

The United States has the [[NOAA]] series of polar orbiting meteorological satellites, presently NOAA-15, NOAA-18 and NOAA-19 ([[Polar Operational Environmental Satellites|POES]]) and NOAA-20 and NOAA-21 ([[Joint Polar Satellite System|JPSS]]). Europe has the [[Metop]]-A, [[Metop]]-B and [[Metop]]-C satellites operated by [[EUMETSAT]]. Russia has the [[Meteor (satellite)|Meteor]] and RESURS series of satellites. China has [[Fengyun|FY]]-3A, 3B and 3C. India has polar orbiting satellites as well.

====DMSP====
[[Image:SatelliteAntenna-137MHz.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Turnstile antenna]] for reception of 137 MHz [[Low Earth Orbit|LEO]] weather satellite transmissions]]
The [[United States Department of Defense]]'s Meteorological Satellite ([[Defense Meteorological Satellite Program|DMSP]]) can "see" the best of all weather vehicles with its ability to detect objects almost as 'small' as a huge [[oil tanker]].  In addition, of all the weather satellites in orbit, only DMSP can "see" at night in the visual.  Some of the most spectacular photos have been recorded by the night visual sensor; city lights, [[volcano]]es, fires, lightning, [[meteor]]s, oil field burn-offs, as well as the [[Aurora Borealis]] and [[Aurora Australis]] have been captured by this {{convert|450|mi|disp=flip}} high space vehicle's low moonlight sensor.

At the same time, energy use and city growth can be monitored since both major and even minor cities, as well as highway lights, are conspicuous.  This informs [[astronomer]]s of [[light pollution]]. The [[New York City Blackout of 1977]] was captured by one of the night orbiter DMSP space vehicles.

In addition to monitoring city lights, these photos are a life saving asset in the detection and monitoring of fires.  Not only do the satellites see the fires visually day and night, but the thermal and [[infrared]] scanners on board these weather satellites detect potential fire sources below the surface of the Earth where smoldering occurs.  Once the fire is detected, the same weather satellites provide vital information about wind that could fan or spread the fires.  These same cloud photos from space tell the [[firefighter]] when it will rain.

Some of the most dramatic photos showed the 600 [[Kuwaiti oil fires]] that the fleeing [[Army of Iraq]] started on February 23, 1991.  The night photos showed huge flashes, far outstripping the glow of large populated areas.  The fires consumed huge quantities of oil; the last was doused on November 6, 1991.

==Uses==
{{Globalize |1=section|2=US|date=July 2024}}
[[File:NOAA Shares First Infrared Imagery from GOES-17 (43904870711).gif|thumb|Infrared image of storms over the central United States from the [[GOES-17]] satellite]]
Snowfield monitoring, especially in the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]], can be helpful to the hydrologist keeping track of available [[snowpack]] for runoff vital to the [[Drainage basin|watersheds]] of the western United States.  This information is gleaned from existing satellites of all agencies of the U.S. government (in addition to local, on-the-ground measurements).  Ice floes, packs, and bergs can also be located and tracked from weather spacecraft.

Even pollution whether it is nature-made or human-made can be pinpointed.  The visual and infrared photos show effects of pollution from their respective areas over the entire earth.  Aircraft and [[rocket]] pollution, as well as [[contrail|condensation trails]], can also be spotted.  The ocean current and low level wind information gleaned from the space photos can help predict oceanic oil spill coverage and movement. Almost every summer, sand and dust from the [[Sahara Desert]] in Africa drifts across the equatorial regions of the Atlantic Ocean.  GOES-EAST photos enable meteorologists to observe, track and forecast this sand cloud.  In addition to reducing visibilities and causing respiratory problems, sand clouds suppress [[hurricane]] formation by modifying the [[solar radiation]] balance of the tropics. Other [[dust storm]]s in Asia and [[mainland China]] are common and easy to spot and monitor, with recent examples of dust moving across the Pacific Ocean and reaching North America.

In remote areas of the world with few local observers, fires could rage out of control for days or even weeks and consume huge areas before authorities are alerted.  Weather satellites can be a valuable asset in such situations. Nighttime photos also show the burn-off in gas and oil fields.  Atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles have been taken by weather satellites since 1969.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/journals/essa_world/QC851U461969jul.pdf|title=The Breakthrough Team|author=Ann K. Cook|journal=ESSA World|date=July 1969|publisher=Environmental Satellite Services Administration|pages=28–31|access-date=2012-04-21|archive-date=February 25, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225113053/http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/journals/essa_world/QC851U461969jul.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Non-imaging sensors==
{{see also|Atmospheric sounding}}
{{further|Satellite temperature measurements}}
Not all weather satellites are direct [[imager]]s. Some satellites are ''sounders'' that take measurements of a single [[pixel]] at a time. They have no [[horizontal and vertical|horizontal]] [[spatial resolution]] but often are capable or resolving vertical [[atmospheric layers]]. Soundings along the satellite [[ground track]] can still be [[gridding|gridded]] later to form [[map]]s.

==International regulation==
[[File:NOAA-M.jpg|thumb|250px|Weather observation satellite-system, NOAA-M spacecrft]]

According to the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU), a ''' meteorological-satellite service''' (also: '''meteorological-satellite radiocommunication service''') is – according to ''Article 1.52'' of the [[ITU Radio Regulations]] (RR)<ref>ITU Radio Regulations, Section IV. Radio Stations and Systems – Article 1.52, definition: ''meteorological-satellite service / meteorological-satellite radiocommunication service''</ref> – defined as ''« An [[earth exploration-satellite service]] for [[meteorology|meteorological]] purposes.» ''

===Classification===
This ''radiocommunication service'' is classified in accordance with ''ITU Radio Regulations'' (article 1) as follows: <br />
[[Fixed service]] (article 1.20)
*[[Fixed-satellite service]] (article 1.21)
*[[Inter-satellite service]] (article 1.22)
*[[Earth exploration-satellite service]] (article 1.51)
**<span style="color:#008000";">'''Meteorological-satellite service'''</span>

===Frequency allocation===
The allocation of radio frequencies is provided according to ''Article 5'' of the ITU Radio Regulations (edition 2012).<ref>''ITU Radio Regulations, CHAPTER II – Frequencies, ARTICLE 5 Frequency allocations, Section IV – Table of Frequency Allocations''</ref>

In order to improve harmonisation in spectrum utilisation, the majority of service-allocations stipulated in this document were incorporated in national Tables of Frequency Allocations and Utilisations which is with-in the responsibility of the appropriate national administration. The allocation might be primary, secondary, exclusive, and shared.
*primary allocation:  is indicated by writing in capital letters (see example below)
*secondary allocation: is indicated by small letters
*exclusive or shared utilization: is within the responsibility of administrations

; Example of [[frequency allocation]]:
{| class=wikitable
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center"
|align="center" colspan="3"| '''Allocation to services'''
|- align="center"
| [[International Telecommunication Union region|Region 1]] || Region 2 || Region 3
|-
|colspan="3"|401-402&nbsp;MHz &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; METEOROLOGICAL AIDS<br />
::::: SPACE OPERATION (space-to-Earth) <br />EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) <br />'''METEOROLOGICAL-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)'''<br />Fixed <br />Mobile except aeronautical mobile
|-
|colspan="3"| 8 817.50-8 821.50&nbsp;MHz '''METEOROLOGICAL-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)'''<br />
::::: and other services
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
* [[Earth observation satellite]]
* [[Environmental satellite]]
** [[List of Earth observation satellites]]
* [[Geostationary orbit]]
* [[Kosmos 122]]
* [[Low Earth orbit]]
** [[Meteorological-satellite radiocommunication service]]
* [[Remote sensing]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Meteorological satellites}}
;Theory
*{{cite book|author=Ralph E. Taggard| title=Weather satellite handbook | isbn=978-0-87259-448-7| publisher=[[American Radio Relay League]] | location=Newington, CT | year=1994| edition=5th }}
*[http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/ Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies]
*[http://profhorn.meteor.wisc.edu/wxwise/museum/a1main.html Verner Suomi ("father of the geostationary satellite") biography]
**[http://profhorn.meteor.wisc.edu/wxwise/museum/a3/a3example1.html Interpreting Satellite Images – Suomi Virtual Museum]
*[http://www.stuffintheair.com/image-satellite-weather.html Physical Characteristics of Geostationary and Polar-Orbiting weather satellites]
**[http://www.economics.noaa.gov/?goal=weather&file=obs/satellite/poes/ NOAA Economics & Social Benefits of POES]
;Data
*[https://www.planetary.org/articles/20150921-how-to-download-weather How to Download Weather Satellite Images from Space] Guide by The Planetary Society
*[http://www.intellicast.com/IcastPage/LoadPage.aspx?loc=usa&seg=LocalWeather&prodgrp=SatelliteImagery&product=World&prodnav=none&pid=none Near realtime composite of satellite image of the Earth] by ''Intellicast''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100201214135/http://internationalweatherarchive.org/satellite.aspx International weather satellite viewer] Online geostationary weather satellite viewer with 2 months of archived data.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050326090647/http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?vev1id=5826 Earth at night] by NASA
*[http://www.eumetsat.int EUMETSAT – the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120922012847/http://cloudsgate2.larc.nasa.gov/index.html NASA Langley Cloud and Radiation Research]  Near real-time and archived satellite imagery and cloud products.
*ISCCP Global ISCCP B1 Browse System (GIBBS) http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/gibbs/ ;Government policy
*[https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo44765 Geostationary Weather Satellites: Progress Made, but Weaknesses in Scheduling, Contingency Planning, and Communicating with Users Need To Be Addressed: Report to the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, House of Representatives] [[Government Accountability Office]]
*[https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo44768 Polar Weather Satellites: NOAA Identified Ways to Mitigate Data Gaps, but Contingency Plans and Schedules Require Further Attention: Report to the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, House of Representatives] [[Government Accountability Office]]

{{Spaceflight}}

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[[Category:Weather satellites| ]]
[[Category:American inventions]]
[[Category:1959 introductions]]
[[Category:Satellite meteorology|*]]