Editing Weather ship

{{short description|Ship used to aid weather forecasting}}
{{Redirect|Ocean station|the light rail station in Macau|Ocean station (Macau Light Rapid Transit)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2012}}
[[Image:Polarfront.jpg|thumb|250px|The weather ship [[MS Polarfront|MS ''Polarfront'']] at sea]]

A '''weather ship''', or '''ocean station vessel''', was a ship stationed in the ocean for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in [[weather forecasting]]. They were primarily located in the north [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and north [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific oceans]], reporting via radio. The vessels aided in [[search and rescue]] operations, supported [[transatlantic flight]]s,<ref name="PM January 1948"/><ref name="cg"/><ref name=Natola>{{Cite book |editor=Mark Natola |title=Boeing B-47 Stratojet |publisher=Schiffer Publishing Ltd. |year=2002 |isbn=978-0764316708 |pages=120–121}}</ref> acted as research platforms for [[oceanographer]]s, monitored [[marine pollution]], and aided weather forecasting by weather forecasters and in computerized [[atmospheric model]]s. [[Research vessel]]s remain heavily used in oceanography, including [[physical oceanography]] and the integration of [[Meteorology|meteorological]] and [[Climatology|climatological]] data in [[Earth system science]].

The idea of a stationary weather ship was proposed as early as 1921 by [[Météo-France]] to help support shipping and the coming of transatlantic aviation. They were used during World War II but had no means of defense, which led to the loss of several ships and many lives. On the whole, the establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II for [[Europe]] and [[North America]] that the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) established a global network of weather ships in 1948, with 13 to be supplied by Canada, the United States and some European countries. This number was eventually cut to nine. The agreement of the use of weather ships by the international community ended in 1985.

Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as commercial shipping tended to avoid weather systems for safety reasons, whereas the weather ships did not. They were also helpful in monitoring storms at sea, such as [[tropical cyclone]]s. Beginning in the 1970s, their role was largely superseded by cheaper [[weather buoy]]s. The removal of a weather ship became a negative factor in forecasts leading up to the [[Great Storm of 1987]]. The last weather ship was ''[[Polarfront]]'', known as weather station M ("Mike"), which was removed from operation on January 1, 2010. Weather observations from ships continue from a [[Voluntary observing ship program|fleet of voluntary merchant vessels]] in routine commercial operation.

== Function ==
[[File:Atlantic Weather ships.jpg|Weather ship locations in the northern Atlantic Ocean|thumb]]
The primary purpose of an ocean weather vessel was to take surface and upper air weather measurements, and report them via radio at the synoptic hours of 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 [[Universal Coordinated Time]] (UTC). Weather ships also reported observations from merchant vessels, which were reported by radio back to their country of origin using a code based on the {{convert|16|km|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} square in the ocean within which the ship was located. The vessels were involved in search and rescue operations involving aircraft and other ships. The vessels themselves had search [[radar]] and could activate a [[homing beacon]] to guide lost aircraft towards the ships' known locations. Each ship's homing beacon used a distinctly different frequency.<ref name="contact">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEeaJC_y22EC&pg=PA55|page=55|title=Contact at Sea|publisher=The Gregg Press, Inc.|author=Peter B. Schroeder|year=1967}}</ref>  In addition, the ships provided a platform where scientific and oceanographic research could be conducted. The role of aircraft support gradually changed after 1975, as [[jet aircraft]] began using polar routes.<ref name="BritishShips"/>  By 1982, the ocean weather vessel role had changed too, and the ships were used to support short range weather forecasting, in [[numerical weather prediction]] computer programs which forecast weather conditions several days ahead, for [[climatology|climatological]] studies, marine forecasting, and oceanography, as well as monitoring pollution out at sea. At the same time, the transmission of the weather data using [[Morse code]] was replaced by a system using [[telex]]-over-radio.
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==Origin==
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;"
|-
! Letter
! Name
! Latitude<br />(North)
! Longitude<br />(East)
|-
| A	
| Able/Alpha	
| 62°	
| −33°<ref name="BritishShips"/>
|-
| B	
| Baker/Bravo	
| 56° 30"	
| −51°<ref name="ABS"/>
|-
| C	
| Charlie	
| 52° 45"	
| −35° 30"<ref name="BritishShips"/>	
|-
| D	
| Dog/Delta	
| 44°	
| −41°<ref name="DEF"/>
|-
| E	
| Easy/Echo	
| 35°	
| −48°<ref name="DEF"/>
|-
| F
| Fox
| 35°
| −40°<ref name="DEF"/>
|-
| G
| George
| 46°
| −29°<ref name="ByGeorge"/>
|-
| H	
| Hotel	
| 38°	
| −71°<ref name="map"/>
|-
| I	
| India	
| 59°	
| −19°<ref name="BritishShips"/>	
|-
| J	
| Juliet/Juliett	
| 52° 30"	
| −20°<ref name="BritishShips"/>
|-
| K	
| Kilo	
| 45°	
| −16°<ref name="map"/>	
|-
| L	
| Lima	
| 57°	
| −20°<ref name="BritishShips"/>
|-
| M	
| Mike	
| 66°	
| 2°<ref name="BritishShips"/>	
|-
| N	
| Nan/November	
| 30°	
| −140°<ref name="NOP"/>	
|-
| O
| Oboe
| 40°
| −142°<ref name="NOP"/>
|-
| P	
| [[Station P (ocean measurement site)|Peter/Papa]]	
| 50°	
| −145°<ref name="NOP"/>
|-
| Q
| Quebec
| 43°
| −167°<ref name="Q"/>
|-
| R	
| Romeo	
| 47°	
| −17°<ref name="BritishShips"/>
|-
| S
| Sugar
| 48°
| −162°<ref name="ABS"/>
|-
| T	
| Tango	
| 29°	
| 135°<ref name="ClimaticSummaries">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XyfnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA29|title=Climatic summaries of ocean weather stations|publisher=University of Colorado/NOAA|author=Diaz, H. F., Ramage, C. S., Woodruff, S. D., & Parker, T. S. |year=1987}}</ref>
|-
| U
| Uncle
| 27° 40"
| −145°<ref name="NU"/>
|-
| V	
| Victor	
| 34°	
| 164°<ref name="map"/>
|-
| X	
| Extra	
| 39°	
| 153°<ref>{{cite journal|page=460|volume=11|issue = 4|journal=Journal of Physical Oceanography|date=April 1981|author=Steven K. Esbensen and Richard W. Reynolds|title=Estimating Monthly Averaged Air-Sea Transfers of Heat and Momentum Using the Bulk Aerodynamic Method|doi=10.1175/1520-0485(1981)011<0457:EMAAST>2.0.CO;2|bibcode=1981JPO....11..457E|hdl=2060/19800020489|hdl-access=free}}</ref>	
|}

In the 1860s, Britain began connecting coastal [[Lightvessel|lightship]]s with [[submarine telegraph cable]]s so they could be used as weather stations.  There were attempts to place weather ships using submarine cables far out into the Atlantic.  The first of these was in 1870 with the old Corvette ''The Brick'' 50 miles off [[Lands End]].  £15,000 was spent on the project, but ultimately it failed.  In 1881, there was a proposal for a weather ship in the mid-Atlantic, but it came to nothing.  Deep-ocean weather ships had to await the commencement of [[radio telegraphy]].<ref>Kieve, Jeffrey L., ''The Electric Telegraph: A Social and Economic History'', pp. 241-143, David and Charles, 1973 {{oclc|655205099}}.</ref>

The director of France's meteorological service, Météo-France, proposed the idea of a stationary weather ship in 1921 in order to aid shipping and the coming of transatlantic flights.<ref name="map"/>  Another early proposal for weather ships occurred in connection with aviation in August 1927, when the aircraft designer [[Grover Loening]] stated that "weather stations along the ocean coupled with the development of the [[seaplane]] to have an equally long range, would result in regular ocean flights within ten years."<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ICoDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA121|page=121|date=August 1927|magazine=Popular Science|publisher=Popular Science Publishing Company, Inc.|volume=111|title=The First Plane to Germany|author=George Lee Dowd Jr. |issue=2}}</ref> During 1936 and 1937, the [[Met Office|British Meteorological Office]] (Met Office) installed a meteorologist aboard a North Atlantic cargo [[steamboat|steamer]] to take special [[surface weather observation]]s and release [[ceiling balloon|pilot balloons]] to measure the winds aloft at the synoptic hours of 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 UTC. In 1938 and 1939, France established a merchant ship as the first stationary weather ship, which took surface observations and launched [[radiosonde]]s to measure weather conditions aloft.<ref name="BritishShips">{{cite journal|url=https://digital.nmla.metoffice.gov.uk/IO_8503afc1-e154-45f3-9acd-8a79a5139726/|title=History of the British Ocean Weather Ships|author=Captain C. R. Downes|journal=The Marine Observer|year=1977|access-date=November 8, 2023|volume=XLVII|pages=179–186}}</ref>

Starting in 1939, [[United States Coast Guard]] vessels were being used as weather ships to protect transatlantic air commerce, as a response to the crash of [[Pan American World Airways]] ''[[Hawaii Clipper]]'' during a transpacific flight in 1938.<ref name="cg"/><ref name="map"/> The Atlantic Weather Observation Service was authorized by President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] on January 25, 1940.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=61|date=April 1952|volume=11|title=Atlantic Weather Project|issue=4|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref> The [[Nazi Germany|Germans]] began to use weather ships in the summer of 1940. However, three of their four ships had been sunk by November 23, which led to the use of fishing vessels for the German weather ship fleet. Their weather ships were out to sea for three to five weeks at a time and German weather observations were [[encryption|encrypted]] using [[Enigma machine]]s.<ref name="german">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KO8crflI8AMC&pg=PA150|title=Seizing the enigma: the race to break the German U-boat codes, 1939–1943|author=David Kahn|pages=149–152|isbn=978-0-7607-0863-7|publisher=Barnes & Noble Publishing|year=2001}}</ref> By February 1941, five {{convert|327|ft|m|adj=on}} United States Coast Guard [[Cutter (boat)#Customs services|cutters]] were used in weather patrol, usually deployed for three weeks at a time, then sent back to port for ten days. As World War II continued, the cutters were needed for the war effort and by August 1942, six [[cargo ship|cargo vessels]] had replaced them. The ships were fitted with two deck guns, anti-aircraft guns, and depth charges, but lacked SONAR (Asdic), Radar, and HF/DF, which may have contributed to the loss of the [[USS Muskeget (AG-48)|USCGC ''Muskeget'' (WAG-48)]] with 121 aboard on September 9, 1942. In 1943, the [[United States Weather Bureau]] recognized their observations as "indispensable" during the war effort.<ref name="cg"/>

The flying of fighter planes between North America, Greenland, and [[Iceland]] led to the deployment of two more weather ships in 1943 and 1944. Great Britain established one of their own {{convert|80|km|mi}} off their west coast. By May 1945, [[Frigate#World War II|frigates]] were used across the Pacific for similar operations. Weather Bureau personnel stationed on weather ships were asked voluntarily to accept the assignment. In addition to surface weather observations, the weather ships would launch radiosondes and release pilot balloons, or PIBALs, to determine weather conditions aloft. However, after the war ended, the ships were withdrawn from service, which led to a loss of upper air weather observations over the oceans.<ref name="BritishShips"/> Due to its value, operations resumed after World War II as a result of an international agreement made in September 1946, which stated that no fewer than 13 ocean weather stations would be maintained by the Coast Guard, with five others maintained by Great Britain and two by [[Brazil]].<ref name="cg">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5A9LCujs08C&pg=PA129|pages=127–130|author=Malcolm Francis Willoughby|title=The U.S. Coast Guard in World War II|publisher=Ayer Publishing|year=1980|isbn=978-0-405-13081-6}}</ref>

==History of the fleet==

===Late 1940s===
The establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) had established a global network of 13&nbsp;weather ships by 1948, with seven operated by the United States, one operated jointly by the United States and Canada, two supplied by the United Kingdom, one maintained by France, one a joint venture by the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]], and one shared by the United Kingdom, [[Norway]], and [[Sweden]].<ref name="PM January 1948">{{cite magazine | title = Britain's First Weather Ship |magazine= Popular Mechanics | volume = 89 | issue = 1 | page =136 | publisher = Hearst Magazines | date = January 1948| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QtkDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA136 | issn = 0032-4558}}</ref> The United Kingdom used [[Royal Navy]] [[corvette]]s to operate their two stations, and staffed crews of 53 Met Office personnel. The ships were out at sea for 27&nbsp;days, and in port for 15&nbsp;days. Their first ship was deployed on July 31, 1947.<ref name="BritishShips"/>

During 1949, the Weather Bureau planned to increase the number of United States Coast Guard weather ships in the Atlantic from five at the beginning of the year to eight by its end.<ref>{{cite journal|url= https://library.oarcloud.noaa.gov/docs.lib/htdocs/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1949.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=353|date=February 1949|volume=8|title=AWP Headquarters Moves to New York|access-date=January 22, 2011|issue=37|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref>  Weather Bureau employees aboard the vessels worked 40 to 63&nbsp;hours per week.<ref>{{cite journal|url= https://library.oarcloud.noaa.gov/docs.lib/htdocs/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1949.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=488|date=October 1949|volume=8|access-date=January 22, 2011|title=Ocean Weather Duty|issue=46|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref> Weather ship G ("George") was dropped from the network on July 1, 1949, and Navy weather ship "Bird Dog" ceased operations on August 1, 1949.<ref name="ByGeorge">{{cite journal|url= https://library.oarcloud.noaa.gov/docs.lib/htdocs/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1949.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|title=Two Ocean Stations Dropped|page=457|date=August 1949|volume=8|access-date=January 22, 2011|issue=44|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref> In the Atlantic, weather vessel F ("Fox") was discontinued on September 3, 1949, and there was a change in location for ships D ("Dog") and E ("Easy") at the same time.<ref name="DEF">{{cite journal|url= https://library.oarcloud.noaa.gov/docs.lib/htdocs/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1949.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=489|date=October 1949|volume=8|access-date=January 22, 2011|title=Changes in Ocean Stations|issue=46|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref>  Navy weather ship J ("Jig") in the north-central Pacific Ocean was placed out of service on October 1, 1949.<ref>{{cite journal|url= https://library.oarcloud.noaa.gov/docs.lib/htdocs/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1949.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=503|date=November 1949|volume=8|access-date=January 22, 2011|title=Navy Ocean Station Discontinued|issue=47|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref>  The original international agreement for a 13&nbsp;ship minimum was later amended downward. In 1949, the minimum number of weather ships operated by the United States was decreased to ten, and in 1954 the figure was lowered again to nine, both changes being made for economic reasons.<ref name="1965physics"/>  Weather vessel O ("Oboe") entered the Pacific portion of the network on December 19, 1949. Also in the Pacific, weather ship A ("Able") was renamed ship P ("Peter") and moved {{convert|200|mi|km}} to the east-northeast in December 1949, while weather vessel F ("Fox") was renamed N ("Nan").<ref name="NOP">{{cite journal|url= https://library.oarcloud.noaa.gov/docs.lib/htdocs/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1950.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=7|date=January 1950|volume=9|access-date=January 22, 2011|title=Changes Made in Pacific Stations|issue=1|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref>

===1950s===
[[Image:Pacific Weather Ships.jpg|thumb|right|Locations of weather ships in the northern Pacific Ocean]]
Weather ship B ("Baker"), which had been jointly operated by Canada and the United States, became solely a United States venture on July 1, 1950. The Netherlands and the United States began to jointly operate weather ship A ("Able") in the Atlantic on July 22, 1950. The [[Korean War]] led to the discontinuing of weather vessel O ("Oboe") on July 31, 1950 in the Pacific, and ship S ("Sugar") was established on September 10, 1950.<ref name="ABS">{{cite journal|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1950.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=132|date=October 1950|volume=9|access-date=January 22, 2011|title=Changes Made in Ocean Projects|issue=10|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref>  Weather ship P's ("Peter") operations were taken over by Canada on December 1, 1950, which allowed the Coast Guard to begin operating station U ("Uncle") {{convert|2000|km|mi}} west of northern [[Baja California]] on December 12, 1950. As a result of these changes, ship N ("Nan") was moved {{convert|400|km|mi}} to the southeast on December 10, 1950.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1951.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=12|date=January 1951|volume=10|access-date=January 31, 2011|title=Changes in Pacific Ocean Station Program|issue=1|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref>

Responsibility for weather ship V ("Victor") transferred from the United States Navy to the United States Coast Guard and Weather Bureau on September 30, 1951.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1951.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=157|date=August 1951|volume=10|access-date=January 31, 2011|title=Bureau to Operate Pacific Station "V"|issue=8|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref>  On March 20, 1952, Vessels N ("November") and U ("Uncle") were moved {{convert|32|to|48|km|mi}} to the south to lie under airplane paths between the western United States coast and [[Honolulu]], Hawaii.<ref name="NU">{{cite journal|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1952.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=48|date=April 1952|volume=11|access-date=January 31, 2011|title=Pacific Stations Relocated|issue=4|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref>  In 1956 {{USCGC|Pontchartrain|WHEC-70|6}}, while stationed at N ("November"), rescued the crew and passengers of [[Pan Am Flight 6]] after the crippled aircraft diverted to the cutter's position and ditched in the ocean.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thisdayinaviation.com/tag/ocean-station-november/ |title=16 October 1956 |date=October 16, 2018 |work=This Day in Aviation |publisher=Bryan R. Swopes}}</ref>  Weather vessel Q ("Quebec") began operation in the north-central Pacific on April 6, 1952,<ref name="Q">{{cite journal|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/wb_topicsandpersonnel/1952.pdf|journal=Weather Bureau Topics|author=United States Weather Bureau|page=79|date=May 1952|volume=11|access-date=January 31, 2011|title=Station "Q" Established|issue=5|author-link=United States Weather Bureau}}</ref> while in the western Atlantic, the British corvettes used as weather ships were replaced by newer Castle-class [[frigate]]s between 1958 and 1961.<ref name="BritishShips"/>

===1960s===
In 1963, the entire fleet won the [[Flight Safety Foundation]] award for their distinguished service to aviation.<ref name="BritishShips"/>  In 1965, there were a total of 21&nbsp;vessels in the weather ship network. Nine were from the United States, four from the United Kingdom, three from France, two from the [[Netherlands]], two from [[Norway]], and one from Canada. In addition to the routine hourly weather observations and upper air flights four times a day, two [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] ships in the northern and central Pacific Ocean sent [[sounding rocket|meteorological rockets]] up to a height of {{convert|80|km|mi}}. For a time, there was a Dutch weather ship stationed in the Indian Ocean. The network left the [[Southern Hemisphere]] mainly uncovered.<ref name="1965physics">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/physicsofmarinea0007roll|url-access=registration|title=Physics of the marine atmosphere|author=Hans Ulrich Roll|pages=[https://archive.org/details/physicsofmarinea0007roll/page/14 14]–15|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-593650-7|year=1965}}</ref>  South Africa maintained a weather ship near latitude [[40th parallel south|40° South]], longitude [[10th meridian east|10° East]] between September 1969 and March 1974.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wavenet.csir.co.za/history.htm|title=History of Ocean Wave Recording in South Africa|author=Ursula von St Ange|year=2002|publisher=Council for Scientific and Industrial Research|access-date=March 25, 2011}}</ref>

==Fading use==
[[File:Tempête Europe 1987.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Great Storm of 1987]], whose prediction would have been helped by Weather Ship R ("Romeo")]]
When compared to the cost of unmanned weather buoys, weather ships became expensive,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmdlBqzl9WIC&pg=PA31|page=31|author=J. F. Robin McIlveen|title=Fundamentals of weather and climate|year=1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7487-4079-6}}</ref>  and weather buoys began to replace United States weather ships in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zQrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA40|page=40|author=National Research Council (U.S.). Ocean Science Committee, National Research Council (U.S.). Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction|title=The role of the ocean in predicting climate: a report of workshops conducted by Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction under the auspices of the Ocean Science of the Ocean Affairs Board, Commission on Natural Resources, National Research Council|year=1974|publisher=National Academies}}</ref>  Across the northern Atlantic, the number of weather ships dwindled over the years. The original nine ships in the region had fallen to eight after ocean vessel C ("Charlie") was discontinued by the United States in December 1973.<ref name="USSR"/>  In 1974, the Coast Guard announced plans to terminate all United States stations, and the last United States weather ship was replaced by a newly developed weather buoy in 1977.<ref name="map">{{cite news |url=http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=2343 |title=Alpha, Bravo, Charlie... Ocean Weather Ships 1940–1980|author=Robertson P. Dinsmore |publisher=Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Marine Operations |date=December 1996|access-date=January 31, 2011}}</ref>

A new international agreement for ocean weather vessels was reached through the [[World Meteorological Organization]] in 1975, which eliminated Ships I (India) and J (Juliett), and left ships M ("Mike"), R ("Romeo"), C ("Charlie"), and L ("Lima") across the northern Atlantic, with the four remaining ships in operation through 1983.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bodc.ac.uk/data/information_and_inventories/edmed/report/1048041/|title=North Atlantic Ocean Weather Ship (OWS) Surface Meteorological Data (1945–1983)|author=Pan-European Infrastructure for Ocean & Marine Data Management|date=September 11, 2010|access-date=January 31, 2011|publisher=British Oceanographic Data Centre}}</ref>  Two of the British frigates were refurbished, as there was no funding available for new weather ships. Their other two ships were retired, as one of the British run stations was eliminated in the international agreement.<ref name="BritishShips"/>  In July 1975, the [[Soviet Union]] began to maintain weather ship C ("Charlie"), which it would operate through the remainder of the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="USSR">{{cite web|url=http://icoads.noaa.gov/kiel/Kiel.Isemer.pdf|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|title=Trends in Marine Surface Wind Speed: Ocean Weather Stations versus Voluntary Observing Ships|author=Hans-Jörg Isemer|page=76|date=August 13, 1999|access-date=March 25, 2011}}</ref>  The last two British frigates were retired from ocean weather service by January 11, 1982, but the international agreement for weather ships was continued through 1985.<ref name="UK1982">{{cite journal|url=http://weatherships.co.uk/images/Docs/Doc26.pdf|journal=[[The Marine Observer]]|title=Changes to the Manning of the North Atlantic Ocean Stations|year=1982|volume=LII|page=34|access-date=October 26, 2011|archive-date=May 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509014826/http://www.weatherships.co.uk/images/Docs/Doc26.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Because of high [[operating cost]]s and budget issues, weather ship R ("Romeo") was recalled from the [[Bay of Biscay]] before the deployment of a weather buoy for the region. This recall was blamed for the minimal warning given in advance of the [[Great Storm of 1987]], when wind speeds of up to {{convert|149|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} caused extensive damage to areas of southern England and northern France.<ref name="Romeo">{{cite magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCLWnFozM6EC&pg=PA25|title=Romeo Would Have Spied the Storm|magazine=New Scientist|date=October 22, 1987|page=22|volume=116|publisher=IPC Magazines|issue=1583}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>  The last weather ship was ''Polarfront'', known as weather station M ("Mike") at 66°N, 02°E, run by the [[Norwegian Meteorological Institute]].  ''Polarfront'' was withdrawn from operation on January 1, 2010.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Nature News|author=Quirin Schiermeier|title=Last Weather Ship Faces Closure|date=June 9, 2010|doi=10.1038/459759a|pmid = 19516306|page=759|issue=7248|volume=459|doi-access=free}}</ref>  Despite the loss of designated weather ships, weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation,<ref>National Data Buoy Center (2009-01-28). [http://www.vos.noaa.gov/vos_scheme.shtml The WMO Voluntary Observing Ships (VOS) Scheme.] [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]. Retrieved on 2011-03-18.</ref> whose number has decreased since 1985.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/jcomm/vos/documents/vos_brochure.pdf|publisher=[[Bureau of Meteorology]]|author=World Meteorological Organization|title=The WMO Voluntary Observing Programme: An Enduring Partnership|date=July 1, 2002|access-date=March 25, 2011|page=2|author-link=World Meteorological Organization}}</ref>
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==Use in research==
[[Image:DorothyJul231966ESSA1.png|thumb|right|[[Weather satellite]] image of Dorothy on June 23, 1966]]
Beginning in 1951, British ocean weather vessels began oceanographic research, such as monitoring [[plankton]], casting of drift bottles, and sampling [[seawater]]. In July 1952, as part of a research project on birds by Cambridge University, twenty [[shearwater]]s were taken more than {{convert|161|km|mi}} offshore in British weather ships, before being released to see how quickly they would return to their nests, which were more than {{convert|720|km|mi}} away on [[Skokholm]] Island. 18 of the twenty returned, the first in just 36 hours. During 1954, British weather ocean vessels began to measure [[sea surface temperature]] gradients and monitored [[wind wave|ocean wave]]s.<ref name="BritishShips"/>  In 1960, weather ships proved to be helpful in [[naval architecture|ship design]] through a series of recordings made on [[punched tape|paper tape]] which evaluated wave height, [[grade (slope)|pitch]], and roll.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oD7wW7Gll-IC&pg=PA1329|magazine=New Scientist|page=1329|date=May 26, 1960|title=What Makes a Good Seaboat?|volume=7|publisher=The New Scientist|issue=184}}</ref>  They were also useful in wind and wave studies, as they did not avoid weather systems like merchant ships tended to and were considered a valuable resource.<ref name="wave">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8sHp9ml7G6YC&pg=PA371|pages=369–371|title=Ocean surface waves: their physics and prediction|author=Stanislaw R. Massel|year=1996|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-02-2109-6}}</ref>

In 1962, British weather vessels measured sea temperature and salinity values from the surface down to {{convert|3000|m|ft}} as part of their duties.<ref name="BritishShips"/>  Upper air soundings launched from weather ship E ("Echo") were of great utility in determining the cyclone phase of [[1966 Atlantic hurricane season#Hurricane Dorothy|Hurricane Dorothy]] in 1966.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/095/mwr-095-03-0121.pdf|title=Some Aspects of the Development of Hurricane Dorothy|author=Carl. O. Erickson|pages=121–130|journal=[[Monthly Weather Review]]|date=March 1967|volume=95|access-date=January 18, 2011|issue=3|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1967)095<0121:SAOTDO>2.3.CO;2|bibcode = 1967MWRv...95..121E|citeseerx=10.1.1.395.1891}}</ref>  During 1971, British weather ships sampled the upper {{convert|500|m|ft}} of the ocean to investigate plankton distribution by depth. In 1972, the Joint Air-Sea Interaction Experiment (JASIN) utilized special observations from weather ships for their research.<ref name="BritishShips"/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KUknE_FMwf8C&pg=PA110|title=Satellite oceanic remote sensing|author=Barry Saltzman|page=110|isbn=978-0-12-018827-7|publisher=Academic Press|year=1985}}</ref>  More recently, in support of climate research, 20&nbsp;years of data from the [[Station P (ocean measurement site)|ocean vessel P ("Papa")]] was compared to nearby voluntary weather observations from mobile ships within the [[International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set]] to check for biases in mobile ship observations over that time frame.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bs8hAwAAQBAJ|page=57|author=Hans von Storc and Francis W. Zwiers|title=Statistical analysis in climate research|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2001|access-date=January 18, 2011|isbn=978-0-521-01230-0}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Oceans|Weather}}
* [[Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study]] (BATS)
* [[Hawaii Ocean Time-series]] (HOT)
*[[DEN/ICE Agreements]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{cite book|last=Adams|first=Michael R.|title=Ocean Station: Operations of the U.S. Coast Guard, 1940–1977|year=2010|publisher=Nor'Easter Press|location=Eastpoint, Maine|isbn=978-0-9779200-1-3}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ocean weather stations}}
*[http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=84776 British Ocean Weather Ship Newsreel from 1947]
*[http://www.weatherships.com Site dedicated to weather ships]

{{Earth-based meteorological observation}}
{{good article}}

[[Category:Weather ships| ]]