Editing Weaving

{{Short description|Technology for the production of textiles}}
{{About|textile weaving}}
[[File:Warp and weft 2.jpg|thumb|right|Warp and weft in [[plain weave|plain weaving]]]] 
[[File: Satin weave in silk 90.jpg|thumb|A [[satin weave]], common for [[silk]], in which each warp thread floats over 15 weft threads]]
[[File:Twill structure.png|thumb|175px|A 3/1 [[twill]], as used in [[denim]]]]
'''Weaving''' is a method of [[textile]] production <!--[[textile arts|textile craft]]--> in which two distinct sets of [[yarn|yarns or threads]] are interlaced at right angles to form a [[textile|fabric]] or [[cloth]]. Other methods are [[knitting]], [[crochet]]ing, [[felt]]ing, and [[braid|braiding or plaiting]]. The longitudinal threads are called the [[Warp (weaving)|warp]] and the lateral threads are the [[weft]], woof, or filling. The method in which these threads are interwoven affects the characteristics of the cloth.{{sfn|Collier|1974|p=92}}
Cloth is usually woven on a [[loom]], a device that holds warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band that meets this definition of cloth (warp threads with a weft thread winding between) can also be made using other methods, including [[tablet weaving]], [[back strap loom]], or other techniques that can be done without looms.{{sfn|Dooley|1914}}

The way the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called the weave.  The majority of woven products are created with one of three basic weaves: [[plain weave]], [[satin weave]], or [[twill weave]]. Woven cloth can be plain or classic (in one colour or a simple pattern), or can be woven in decorative or artistic design.

==Process and terminology==
{{main|Loom|Power loom}}
[[File:Security Guard Weaving - Old City - Dhaka - Bangladesh (12850517463).jpg|thumb|A [[Bangladesh Ansar]] officer weaving on duty.]]
In general, weaving involves using a [[loom]] to interlace two sets of threads at [[Perpendicular|right angles]] to each other: the [[Warp (weaving)|warp]] which runs longitudinally and the [[weft]] (older ''woof'') that crosses it. ({{lang|ang|Weft}} is an [[Old English]] word meaning "that which is woven"; compare ''leave'' and ''left''.{{efn|deriving from an obsolete [[past participle]] of ''weave'' ([[Oxford English Dictionary]], see "weft" and "weave".}}) One warp thread is called an ''end'' and one weft thread is called a ''pick''. The warp threads are held taut and in [[Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] to each other, typically in a loom.  There are many types of looms.{{sfn|Collier|1974|p=102}}

Weaving can be summarized as a repetition of these three actions, also called the ''primary motions of the loom''.
* Shedding: where the warp threads (ends) are separated by raising or lowering heald frames ([[heddle]]s) to form a clear space, referred to as the [[shed (weaving)|shed]] where the pick can pass
* Picking: where the weft or pick is propelled across the loom by hand, an air-jet, a rapier or a [[shuttle (weaving)|shuttle]]
* Beating-up or battening: where the weft is pushed up against the fell of the cloth by the [[Reed (weaving)|reed]]<ref name=Collier104/>

The warp is divided into two overlapping groups, or lines (most often adjacent threads belonging to the opposite group) that run in two planes, one above another, so the shuttle can be passed between them in a straight motion. Then, the upper group is lowered by the loom mechanism, and the lower group is raised (shedding), allowing the shuttle to pass in the opposite direction, also in a straight motion. Repeating these actions forms a fabric mesh but without beating-up, the final distance between the adjacent wefts would be irregular and far too large.

The ''secondary motions of the loom'' are the:
* Let off motion: where the warp is let off the warp beam at a regulated speed to make the filling even and of the required design
* Take up motion: takes up the woven fabric in a regulated manner so that the density of filling is maintained

The ''tertiary motions of the loom'' are the stop motions: to stop the loom in the event of a thread break. The two main stop motions are the
* Warp stop motion
* Weft stop motion

The principal parts of a loom are the frame, the warp-beam or weavers beam, the cloth-roll (apron bar), the heddles, and their mounting, the [[Reed (weaving)|reed]]. The warp-beam is a wooden or metal cylinder on the back of the loom on which the warp is delivered. The threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the front of the loom where they are attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or group of threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye) in a heddle. The warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more groups, each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement of the heddles is controlled by "cams" which move up the heddles by means of a frame called a harness; in larger patterns the heddles are controlled by a dobby mechanism, where the healds are raised according to pegs inserted into a revolving drum. Where a complex design is required, the healds are raised by harness cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening ([[Shed (weaving)|shed]]) is made between the threads of warp, through which the pick is inserted. Traditionally the weft thread is inserted by a shuttle.<ref name=Collier104>{{Harvnb|Collier|1974|p=104}}.</ref>{{sfn|Dooley|1914|p=54}}

On a conventional loom, continuous weft thread is carried on a [[pirn]], in a [[Shuttle (weaving)|shuttle]] that passes through the shed. A handloom weaver could propel the shuttle by throwing it from side to side with the aid of a picking stick. The "picking" on a [[power loom]] is done by rapidly hitting the shuttle from each side using an overpick or underpick mechanism controlled by cams 80–250 times a minute.<ref name=Collier104/>  When a pirn is depleted, it is ejected from the shuttle and replaced with the next pirn held in a battery attached to the loom. Multiple shuttle boxes allow more than one shuttle to be used. Each can carry a different colour which allows banding across the loom.
[[File:Weaving Pattern Cards.jpg|thumb|Weaving pattern cards used by Skye Weavers, [[Isle of Skye]], Scotland]]

The rapier-type weaving machines do not have shuttles, they propel cut lengths of weft by means of small grippers or rapiers that pick up the filling thread and carry it halfway across the loom where another rapier picks it up and pulls it the rest of the way.{{sfn|Collier|1974|p=110}}  Some carry the filling yarns across the loom at rates in excess of 2,000 metres per minute. Manufacturers such as [[Picanol]] have reduced the mechanical adjustments to a minimum, and control all the functions through a computer with a [[graphical user interface]]. Other types use compressed air to insert the pick. They are all fast, versatile and quiet.<ref name="CFF">{{cite web |url=http://www.icac.org/delegates/sc_notices/sc_meeting_506/Cotton-From-Field-to-Fabric.pdf |title=Cotton: From Field to Fabric |publisher=Cotton Counts |access-date=31 October 2011 |location=Memphis, Tennessee}}</ref>

The warp is [[Sizing#Textile warp sizing|sized]] in a starch mixture for smoother running. The loom warped (loomed or dressed) by passing the sized warp threads through two or more [[heddle]]s attached to harnesses. The power weavers loom is warped by separate workers. Most looms used for industrial purposes have a machine that ties new warps threads to the waste of previously used warps threads, while still on the loom, then an operator rolls the old and new threads back on the [[warp beam]]. The harnesses are controlled by cams, dobbies or a Jacquard head.

[[File:Twill weave.png|thumb|A 3/1 twill weave, as used in denim]]
The raising and lowering sequence of warp threads in various sequences gives rise to many possible weave structures:
* [[Plain weave]]: plain, and hopsacks, [[poplin]], [[taffeta]],<ref name=Collier114/> poult-de-soie, [[pibiones]] and [[grosgrain]]
* [[Twill weave]]: these are described by weft float followed by warp float, arranged to give diagonal pattern; examples are 2/1 twill, 3/3 twill, or 1/2 twill. These are softer fabrics than plain weaves.{{sfn|Collier|1974|p=115}}
* [[Satin weave]]: [[satin]]s and [[sateen]]s{{sfn|Collier|1974|p=116}}
* Complex computer-generated interlacings, such as [[Jacquard loom|Jacquard]] fabric
* Pile [[List of fabrics|fabrics]]: fabrics with a surface of cut threads (a ''pile''), such as [[velvet]]s and [[velveteen]]s{{sfn|Collier|1974|p=116}}
*[[Selvage]] refers to the fabric's edge, which may be marked with the manufacturer's detail. It is a narrow edge of a woven fabric parallel to its length.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fabric Glossary - Cloak & Dagger Creations |url=https://www.cloakmaker.com/fabric_glossary.html#M |access-date=2021-05-24 |website=www.cloakmaker.com}}</ref>
*[[Thrum (textiles)|Thrums]] are the remainder yarns for tying on the loom. The portion that is not weavable warp. It is also called loom waste.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McClintock |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5DUtAAAAYAAJ&q=Thrums+in+weaving+are+threads&pg=PA896 |title=Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature |date=1881 |publisher=Harper |page=896 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wright |first=Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2kTAwAAQBAJ&q=Thrums+the+name+of+the+end+pieces+of+thread+in+a+weaving&pg=PA123 |title=The English dialect dictionary |date=1893 |publisher=Рипол Классик |isbn=978-5-88094-978-6 |page=123 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WjSsAAAAIAAJ&q=thrums |title=American Literary Realism |date=2000 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |page=108 |language=en}}</ref>

Both warp and weft can be visible in the final product. By spacing the warp more closely, it can completely cover the weft that binds it, giving a ''warp faced'' textile such as rep weave.<ref name=Collier114>{{Harvnb|Collier|1974|p=114}}</ref> Conversely, if the warp is spread out, the weft can slide down and completely cover the warp, giving a ''weft faced'' textile, such as a [[tapestry]] or a [[Kilim]] rug. There are a variety of loom styles for hand weaving and tapestry.<ref name=Collier114/>

==Archaeology==
[[File:Women weaving in Beni Hassan tomb (Вертикальный ткацкий станок Египет).jpg|thumb|upright|Weaving in ancient Egypt]]

There are some indications that weaving was already known in the [[Paleolithic]] Era, as early as 27,000 years ago. An indistinct textile impression has been found at the [[Dolní Věstonice (archaeology)|Dolní Věstonice]] site.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivi.html |title=Dolni Vestonice and Pavlov sites |publisher=Donsmaps.com |access-date=26 April 2016}}</ref> According to the find, the weavers of the Upper Palaeolithic were manufacturing a variety of cordage types, produced plaited basketry and sophisticated twined and plain woven cloth. The artifacts include imprints in clay and burned remnants of cloth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/790569.stm |title=BBC News - SCI/TECH - Woven cloth dates back 27,000 years |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

The oldest known textiles found in the Americas are remnants of six finely woven textiles and cordage found in [[Guitarrero Cave]], [[Peru]]. The weavings, made from plant fibres, are dated between 10,100 and 9080 BCE.<ref>Stacey, Kevin (13 April 2011). [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2011-04/uocp-cdi041311.php "Carbon dating identifies South America's oldest textiles"]. ''University of Chicago Press Journals''. Retrieved 6 October 2016.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1086/659336 |title=Cordage, Textiles, and the Late Pleistocene Peopling of the Andes |year=2011 |last1=Jolie |first1=Edward A. |last2=Lynch |first2=Thomas F. |last3=Geib |first3=Phil R. |last4=Adovasio |first4=J. M. |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=285–296 |s2cid=43570348 |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1138&context=anthropologyfacpub|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In 2013 a piece of cloth woven from hemp was found in burial F. 7121 at the [[Çatalhöyük]] site,<ref name="2013 Season Review">{{cite web |last=Hodder |first=Ian |title=2013 Season Review |url=http://www.catalhoyuk.com/downloads/Catal_News_2013.pdf |access-date=7 February 2014 |pages=1–2 |year=2013 |work=Çatal Newsletter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413171706/http://www.catalhoyuk.com/downloads/Catal_News_2013.pdf |archive-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> suggested to be from around 7000 BCE<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/875886 |title=Pavlov VI: an Upper Palaeolithic living unit &#124; Miriam Nývltová Fišáková |journal=Antiquity |via=Academia.edu |date=1 January 1970 |volume=83 |issue=320 |pages=282–295 |access-date=26 April 2016 |last1=Svoboda |first1=Jiří |last2=Králík |first2=Miroslav |last3=Čulíková |first3=Věra |last4=Hladilová |first4=Šárka |last5=Novák |first5=Martin |last6=Fišáková |first6=Miriam Nývltová |last7=Nývlt |first7=Daniel |last8=Zelinková |first8=Michaela |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00098434 |s2cid=56326310 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Centuries-old fabric found in Çatalhöyük |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/centuries-old-fabric-found-in-catalhoyuk.aspx?pageID=238&nID=61883&NewsCatID=375 |access-date=7 February 2014 |newspaper=hurriyet daily news |date=3 February 2014}}</ref> Further finds come from the [[Neolithic]] civilisation preserved in the [[Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps|pile dwellings]] in Switzerland.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barber |first1=E. J. W. |title=Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean |date=1991 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00224-8 |pages=97, 134 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnSlynSfeEIC&pg=PA97 |access-date=30 August 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

Another extant fragment from the Neolithic was found in [[Fayum]], at a site dated to about 5000 BCE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/textil/wovenlinen.htm |title=Woven linen |publisher=University College London |date=2003 |access-date=19 March 2015}}</ref> This fragment is woven at about 12 threads by 9 threads per centimetre in a plain weave. [[Flax]] was the predominant fibre in Egypt at this time (3600 BCE) and had continued popularity in the [[Nile|Nile Valley]], though [[wool]] became the primary fibre used in other cultures around 2000 BCE.<ref>Catherine Breniquet,Cécile Michel. Wool Economy in the Ancient Near East and the Aegean. Wool Economy in the Ancient Near East and the Aegean: From the Beginnings of Sheep Husbandry to Institutional Textile Industry, 17, Oxbow Books, pp.1-11, 2014, Ancient Textiles Series, 9781782976318. https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01226052/document</ref>

The oldest-known weavings in North America come from the [[Windover Archaeological Site]] in [[Florida]]. Dating from 4900 to 6500 BCE and made from plant fibres, the Windover [[hunter-gatherer]]s produced "finely crafted" twined and [[plain weave]] textiles.<ref>Spike, Tamara (July 2003). [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=7863 "Review of Doran, Glen H., ed. ''Windover: Multidisciplinary Investigations of an Early Archaic Florida Cemetery''"]. ''H-Net Reviews''. H. Florida. Retrieved 7 October 2016.</ref><ref>Tyson, Peter (6 February 2006). [http://pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/americas-bog-people.html "America's Bog People"]. NOVA. Retrieved 7 October 2016.</ref>  Eighty-seven pieces of fabric were found associated with 37 burials. Researchers have identified seven different weaves in the fabric.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Adovasio |first1=J. M. |last2=Andrews |first2=R. L. |last3=Hyland |first3=D. C. |last4=Illingworth |first4=J. S. |date=2001 |title=Perishable Industries from the Windover Bog: An Unexpected Window into the Florida Archaic |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2190/BX11-VDQY-LG5N-P94F |journal=North American Archaeologist |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–90 |doi=10.2190/BX11-VDQY-LG5N-P94F |s2cid=163978636 |issn=0197-6931|url-access=subscription }}</ref> One kind of fabric had 26 strands per inch (10 strands per centimetre). There were also weaves using two-strand and three-strand [[weft]]s. A round bag made from [[twine]] was found, as well as [[matting]]. The [[yarn]] was probably made from palm leaves. [[Sabal palmetto|Cabbage palm]], [[saw palmetto]] and [[Sabal etonia|scrub palmetto]] are all common in the area, and would have been so 8,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Robin C. |title=Florida's First People: 12,000 Years of Human History |year=1994 |publisher=Pineapple Press |location=Sarasota, Florida |isbn=1-56164-032-8 |page=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Milanich |first=Jerald T. |title=Archaeology of Precolumbian Florida |year=1994 |publisher=University Press of Florida |location=Gainesville, Florida |isbn=0-8130-1273-2 |pages=74–75}}</ref>

<!-- Enslaved women worked as weavers during the [[Sumer|Sumerian Era]]. (4000BCE).   Another Ancient Egyptian item, known as the Badari dish, depicts a textile workshop. -->
<!-- put as note: This item, catalogue number UC9547, is now housed at the [[Petrie Museum]] and dates to about 3600 BCE{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}
put as note: They washed wool fibres in hot water and [[wood-ash soap]] and then dried them. Next, they beat out the dirt and [[carding|carded]] the wool. The wool was then graded, [[Bleach (chemical)|bleached]], and spun into a thread. The spinners pulled out fibres and twisted them together. This was done either by rolling fibres between palms or using a hooked stick. The thread was then placed on a wooden or bone [[spindle (textiles)|spindle]] and rotated on a clay [[Spindle (textiles)|whorl]], which operated like a [[flywheel]].
where they worked in three-woman teams on the [[loom]]s. The finished cloth was then taken to a [[fulling|fuller]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}-->
Evidence of weaving as a commercial household industry in the historical region of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] has been found at the [[Olynthus]] site. When the city was destroyed by [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] in 348 BCE, artifacts were preserved in the houses. Loomweights were found in many houses, enough to produce cloth to meet the needs of the household, but some of the houses contained more loomweights, enough for commercial production, and one of the houses was adjacent to the ''[[agora]]'' and contained three shops where many coins were found. It is probable that such homes were engaged in commercial textile manufacture.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ault |first1=Bradley A. |title=Ancient Greek Houses and Households: Chronological, Regional, and Social Diversity |date=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0443-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5ZwvxYuBAkC}}</ref>

==History==

Weaving was known in all the great civilisations, but no clear line of causality has been established. Early looms required two people to create the shed and one person to pass through the filling. Early looms wove a fixed length of cloth, but later ones allowed warp to be wound out as the fell progressed. Weaving became simpler when the warp was [[Sizing#Textile warp sizing|sized]].

===Africa===
Around the 4th century BCE , the cultivation of cotton and the knowledge of its spinning and weaving in [[Meroë]] reached a high level. Export of textiles was one of the main sources of wealth for [[Kingdom of Kush|Kush]]. [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] King [[Ezana]] boasted in his inscription that he destroyed large cotton plantations in Meroë during his conquest of the region.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&q=cultivation+cotton+Meroe&pg=PA310 |title=Ancient civilizations of Africa |author=G. Mokhtar |publisher=Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa |page=310 |via=Books.google.com |access-date=2012-06-19 |isbn=978-0-435-94805-4 |date=1981-01-01}}</ref>

===Latin America===
{{Main|Textile arts of indigenous peoples of the Americas|Andean textiles}}
[[File:Tzutujil.weaving.jpg|left|thumb|An indigenous woman of the Maya Tzutujil culture weaves using a back-strap loom.]]
[[File:Andean Weaving Museum of Anthropology UBC Vancouver.jpg|thumb|Example of weaving characteristic of [[Andean civilizations]]]]
[[File:Tejedora de fibras.jpg|thumb|Natural fiber weaver in [[Nuevo León]], Mexico]]
The [[Indigenous people of the Americas]] wove textiles of [[cotton]] throughout tropical and subtropical America and in the South American [[Andes]] of wool from [[camelids]], primarily domesticated [[llamas]] and [[alpacas]]. Cotton and the camelids were both domesticated by about 4,000 BCE.<ref>Rajpal, Vijay Rani; Rao, S. Rama; Raina, S. N. (2016). ''Gene Pool Diversity and Crop Improvement''. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. p. 117.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The History of Llamas and Alpacas in South America |url=http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestications/qt/Llama-And-Alpaca.htm |work=ThoughtCo |author=Hirst, K. Kris |date=29 September 2014 |access-date=6 October 2016}}</ref>  American weavers are "credited with independently inventing nearly every non-mechanized technique known today."<ref>Stanfield-Mazzi, Maya (2012). [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0022.xml "Textile Traditions of the Andes"]. Retrieved 6 October 2016.</ref>

In the [[Inca Empire]] of the Andes, both men and women produced textiles.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Graubart |first=Karen B. |date=2000 |title=Weaving and the Construction of a Gender Division of Labor in Early Colonial Peru |journal=American Indian Quarterly |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=537–561 |doi=10.1353/aiq.2000.0017 |jstor=1185889 |s2cid=143772318 |issn=0095-182X}}</ref> Women mostly did their weaving using [[backstrap loom]]s to make small pieces of cloth and vertical frame and single-[[heddle]] looms for larger pieces.<ref>McEwam, Gordon F. (2006). ''The Incas: New Perspectives''. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. p. 167; Cartwright, Mark (1 February 2015). [https://www.worldhistory.org/article/791 "Inca Textiles"]. ''Ancient History Encyclopedia''. Retrieved 7 October 2016.</ref> Men used upright looms. The Inca elite valued ''[[cumbi]]'', which was a fine tapestry-woven textile produced on upright looms. The elite often offered {{lang|qu|cumbi}} as gifts of reciprocity to lords (other elite) in the Empire. In regions under direct control of the Inca, special artisans produced ''cumbi'' for the elite. Women who created ''cumbi'' in these regions were called ''acllas'' or ''mamaconas'' and men were called ''cumbicamayos''.<ref name=":0" /> Andean textile weavings were of practical, symbolic, religious, and ceremonial importance and used as currency, tribute, and as a determinant of social class and rank. Sixteenth-century Spanish colonists were impressed by both the quality and quantity of textiles produced by the Inca Empire.<ref>Morris, Craig; Von Hagen, Adriana (1993). ''The Inka Empire and its Andean Origins''. American Museum of Natural History. New York: Abbeville Press. pp. 185-191.</ref>  Some of the techniques and designs are still in use in the 21st century.<ref>Meisch, Lynn A. [http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/features/112333/the-mur-a-code "The Murúa Code"]. ''Natural History Magazine''. Retrieved 7 October 2016.</ref>

Whereas European cloth-making generally created ornamentation through "suprastructural" means—by adding embroidery, ribbons, brocade, dyeing, and other elements onto the finished woven textile—pre-Columbian Andean weavers created elaborate cloth by focusing on "structural" designs involving manipulation of the warp and weft of the fabric itself. Andeans used "tapestry techniques; double-, triple- and quadruple-cloth techniques; gauze weaves; warp-patterned weaves; discontinuous warp or scaffold weaves; and plain weaves" among many other techniques, in addition to the suprastructural techniques listed above.<ref>{{cite book |title=Archaeometry of Pre-Columbian Sites and Artifacts: Proceedings of a Symposium Organized by the UCLA Institute of Archaeology and the Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, California, March 23–27, 1992 |year=1994 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-0-89236-249-3 |editor=David A. Scott, Pieter Meyers |page=8}}</ref>

===East Asia===
[[File:Yōshū Chikanobu Filial Piety.jpg|right|thumb|A woman weaving. [[Ukiyo-e]] woodblock print by [[Toyohara Chikanobu|Yōshū Chikanobu]], 1890]]
The weaving of [[silk]] from silkworm cocoons has been known in [[China]] since about 3500 BCE. Silk that was intricately woven and dyed, showing a well developed craft, has been found in a Chinese tomb dating back to 2700 BCE.

Silk weaving in China was an intricate process that was very involved. Men and women, usually from the same family, had their own roles in the weaving process. The actual work of weaving was done by both men and women.{{sfn|Feng|2001|p=461}} Women were often weavers since it was a way they could contribute to the household income while staying at home.<ref name="Rothschild2015 p27">{{Cite book |title=Emperor Wu Zhao and Her Pantheon of Devis, Divinities, and Dynastic Mothers |last=Rothschild |first=Harry |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2015 |page=72}}</ref> Women would usually weave simpler designs within the household while men would be in charge of the weaving of more intricate and complex pieces of clothing.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |date=2013 |title=Robin Netherton and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, eds., Medieval Clothing and Textiles 8. Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Boydell Press, 2012. Pp. 197. $60 |isbn=978-1-84383-736-7 |journal=Speculum |volume=88 |issue=2 |page=608 |doi=10.1017/s0038713413001814 |issn=0038-7134 |last1=Netherton |first1=Robin |last2=Owen-Crocker |first2=Gale R.}}</ref> The process of [[sericulture]] and weaving emphasized the idea that men and women should work together instead of women being subordinate to men. Weaving became an integral part of Chinese women's social identity. Several rituals and myths were associated with the promotion of silk weaving, especially as a symbol of female power.  Weaving contributed to the balance between men and women's economic contributions and had many economic benefits.<ref name="Rothschild2015 p27" />{{sfn|Li|1981|p=135}}

There were many paths into the occupation of weaver. Women usually married into the occupation, belonged to a family of weavers and or lived in a location that had ample weather conditions that allowed for the process of silk weaving. Weavers usually belonged to the peasant class.{{sfn|Feng|2001|pp=407–409}} Silk weaving became a specialized job requiring specific technology and equipment that was completed domestically within households.{{sfn|Li|1981|p=131}} Although most of the silk weaving was done within the confines of the home and family, there were some [[Guild|specialized workshops]] that hired skilled silk weavers as well. These workshops took care of the weaving process, although the raising of the silkworms and reeling of the silk remained work for peasant families. The silk that was woven in workshops rather than homes were of higher quality, since the workshop could afford to hire the best weavers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Lynda Schaefer |date=2000 |title=Of Silk, Women, and Capital: Peasant Women's Labor in Chinese and Other Third World Capitalisms |journal=Journal of Women's History |language=en |volume=11 |issue=4 |page=83 |doi=10.1353/jowh.2000.0002 |s2cid=143870818 |issn=1527-2036}}</ref> These weavers were usually men who operated more complicated looms, such as the wooden draw-loom.{{sfn|Li|1981|p=27}} This created a competitive market of silk weavers.

The quality and ease of the weaving process depended on the silk that was produced by the silk worms. The easiest silk to work with came from breeds of silk worms that spun their [[Cocoon (silk)|cocoons]] so that it could be unwound in one long strand.<ref name=":3" /> The reeling, or unwinding of silk worm cocoons is started by placing the cocoons in boiling water in order to break apart the silk filaments as well as kill the silk worm [[pupa]]e. Women would then find the end of the strands of silk by sticking their hand into the boiling water. Usually this task was done by girls aged eight to twelve, while the more complex jobs were given to older women.{{sfn|Li|1981|p=29}} They would then create a silk thread, which could vary in thickness and strength from the unwound cocoons.<ref name=":3" />

After the reeling of the silk, the silk would be dyed before the weaving process began. There were many different looms and tools for weaving. For high quality and intricate designs, a wooden [[Loom|draw-loom]] or pattern loom was used.{{sfn|Li|1981|p=27}} This loom would require two or three weavers and was usually operated by men. There were also other smaller looms, such as the waist loom, that could be operated by a single woman and were usually used domestically.{{sfn|Li|1981|p=27}}

[[Sericulture]] and silk weaving spread to Korea by 200 BCE, to [[Khotan]] by 50 CE, and to Japan by about 300 CE.

The pit-treadle loom may have originated in India though most authorities establish the invention in China.<ref name="Broudy1979">{{cite book |author=Broudy, Eric |title=The Book of Looms: A History of the Handloom from Ancient Times to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shN5_-W1RzcC |year=1979 |publisher=University Press of New England |isbn=978-0-87451-649-4 |pages=111–112}}</ref> [[Lever|Pedals]] were added to operate [[Heddle#Single and double heddle looms|heddles]]. By the Middle Ages such devices also appeared in [[Persia]], Sudan, Egypt and possibly the Arabian Peninsula, where "the operator sat with his feet in a pit below a fairly low-slung loom". In 700 CE, horizontal looms and vertical looms could be found in many parts of Asia, Africa and Europe.  In Africa, the rich dressed in cotton while the poorer wore wool.<ref name=Pacey>{{cite book |title=Technology in world civilization: a thousand-year history |first=Arnold |last=Pacey |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=1991 |isbn=0-262-66072-5 |pages=40–1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&pg=PA41}}</ref>
By the 12th century it had come to Europe either from the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]] or [[Al-Andalus|Moorish Spain]] where the mechanism was raised higher above the ground on a more substantial frame.<ref name=Pacey/><ref name="Jenkins2003">{{cite book |editor=Jenkins, D.T. |title=The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZljldSpV28UC |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-34107-3 |page=194}}</ref>
<gallery>
Equipment for unravelling silk cocoons. Khotan.jpg|Equipment for unraveling silk cocoons. [[Khotan]]
Women weaving silk. Kashgar.jpg|Women weaving silk. [[Kashgar]]
Viet Nam – The Colors of Traditional Brocade and Silk 3.jpg|A traditional Vietnamese brocade and silk products weaver using a handloom
</gallery>

===Southeast Asia===
In the [[Philippines]], numerous pre-colonial weaving traditions exist among different [[Ethnic groups of the Philippines|ethnic groups]]. They used various plant fibers, mainly [[abacá]] or [[banana]], but also including [[Gossypium arboreum|tree cotton]], [[buri palm]] (locally known as {{Lang|fil|buntal}}) and other palms, various grasses (like {{Lang|fil|amumuting}} and {{Lang|fil|tikog}}), and [[barkcloth]].<ref name="tatler">{{cite web |last1=Sorilla |first1=Franz IV |title=Weaving the Threads of Filipino Heritage |url=https://ph.asiatatler.com/life/weaving-the-threads-of-filipino-heritage |website=Philippine Tatler |access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="wise">{{cite web |last1=Perez |first1=Tina |title=Puerto Princesa: City in a Forest |url=http://www.mrswise.tk/2017/02/puerto-princesa-city-in-forest.html |website=Mrs. Wise |access-date=13 December 2018 |date=16 February 2017}}</ref> The oldest evidence of weaving traditions are [[Neolithic]] stone tools used for preparing barkcloth found in archeological sites in [[Archaeology of the Philippines|Sagung Cave]] of southern [[Palawan]] and [[Archaeology of the Philippines|Arku Cave]] of [[Peñablanca, Cagayan]]. The latter has been dated to around 1255&ndash;605 BCE.<ref name="natmus">{{cite web |title=Bark-Cloth Beater 
|url=http://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph/nationalmuseumbeta/Collections/Archaeo/Beater.html |website=National Museum Collections |publisher=National Museum of the Philippines |access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref>

Other countries in Southeast Asia have their own extensive history of weaving traditions. Weaving was introduced to Southeast Asia at the same time rice agriculture was introduced from China.<ref name="Novellino">{{cite journal |last1=Novellino |first1=Dario |title=Weaving traditions from Island Southeast Asia: Historical context and ethnobotanical knowledge |journal=IVth International Congress of Ethnobotany |date=2005 |pages=307–316 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330260207}}</ref>  As it was introduced alongside rice farming, weaving is more popular in communities where rice is being farmed as compared to communities that rely on hunting, gathering, and animal farming.<ref name="Novellino" />

Each country has its own distinctive weaving traditions or has absorbed weaving traditions from their neighboring countries. The most common material used for weaving is cotton that is interwoven with threads made of different materials.<ref name="Novellino" /> Brunei is famous for its Jong Sarat, a cloth usually used in traditional weddings, uses silver and gold threads interwoven usually with cotton threads. Similarly, Indonesia has the Songket, also used in traditional weddings, which also utilizes gold and silver wrapped thread to create elaborate designs on their weaved textiles. On the other hand, Cambodia has the Ikat, which utilizes the method of dyeing thunks of thread tied with fiber to create patterns while weaving. In addition to using threads, weavers of  Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam combine silk and other fibers with cotton for weaving. While in Laos, natural materials are used, like roots, tree bark, leaves, flowers, and seeds, but for dyeing the textile that has been already weaved.<ref name="SouteastAsia">{{cite web |title=Silk Weaving in the ASEAN Region. |url=https://www.visitsoutheastasia.travel/activity/silk-weaving-in-the-asean-region/ |website=Southeast Asia |publisher=ASEAN}}</ref> These countries in Southeast Asia have more weaving traditions but these techniques are the popular ones.

To create threads of cotton for weaving, spindle whorls were commonly used in Southeast Asia. It is made from either clay, stone or wood and has a variety of appearances regarding its shape and size. Spindle whorls were said to emerge in Southeast Asia along with expansion of rice agriculture from Yangtse, China. Additionally, its increasing appearance in certain regions of Southeast Asia back then may be also a sign of the enlargement of cotton thread and textile production. Due to its low cost and portability because of its small size, it was favored among rural weaving communities in countries of Southeast Asia.<ref name="Buckley">{{cite journal |last1=Buckley |first1=Christopher |title=The origins of Southeast Asian weaving traditions: The perspective from archaeology |journal=Asian Archaeology |volume=7 |issue=2 |date=August 2023 |pages=151–162 |url=https://pennds.org/archaeobib/files/original/1fa8ccd5f736957d81d069fd66b47454.pdf}}</ref>

Weaved textiles in Southeast Asia are mostly made with looms. The foot brace loom is the earliest loom introduced to Southeast Asia from China, having its first appearance in Vietnam.<ref name="Buckley">{{cite journal |last1=Buckley |first1=Christopher |title=The origins of Southeast Asian weaving traditions: The perspective from archaeology |journal=Asian Archaeology |volume=7 |issue=2 |date=August 2023 |pages=151–162 |url=https://pennds.org/archaeobib/files/original/1fa8ccd5f736957d81d069fd66b47454.pdf}}</ref> Although, it was only used in certain areas of Vietnam, Laos, Indonesia, and Cambodia.<ref name="lovms">{{cite journal |last1=Buckley |first1=Christopher |title=Looms, Weaving and the Austronesian Expansion |journal=Spirits and Ships: Cultural Transfers in Early Monsoon Asia |date=2017 |pages=273–324 |url=https://www.academia.edu/9974664}}</ref> Another loom that is widely used across Southeast Asia is the ground level body tension loom, also known as the belt loom, as a part of it needs to be attached to a belt-like strap on the weaver’s waist to control and hold the tension of the warped threads.<ref name="Novellino" /> It is usually operated at the ground level and the weaver is able to control the threads by leaning backwards and forward. The body tension loom was developed from the foot-brace loom to eventually accommodate weaving of larger and wider cloth types.<ref name="lovms">{{cite journal |last1=Buckley |first1=Christopher |title=Looms, Weaving and the Austronesian Expansion |journal=Spirits and Ships: Cultural Transfers in Early Monsoon Asia |date=2017 |pages=273–324 |url=https://www.academia.edu/9974664}}</ref>

<gallery>
Piña-Seda- Pineapple and Silk Cloths from the Philippines 13.jpg|Contemporary Philippines weaver demonstrating pineapple-plant fiber and silk cloths being woven in a traditional loom.
Piña-Seda- Pineapple and Silk Cloths from the Philippines 12.jpg|Pineapple-plant fiber and silk threads being woven in a traditional loom.
USAID Measuring Impact Conservation Enterprise Retrospective (Philippines; Kalahan Educational Foundation) (40246611432).jpg|''[[T'nalak]]'' cloth by [[T'boli people|T'boli]] dream weavers. Like most indigenous pre-colonial Filipino textiles, they were typically made from [[abacá]] fibers.
</gallery>

===Medieval Europe===
[[File:Mendel I 004 v.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|Weaver, [[Nürnberg]], {{Circa|1425}}]]
The predominant [[fibre]] in Europe during the [[Medieval Period|medieval period]] was [[wool]], followed by [[linen]] and [[Urtica dioica|nettlecloth]] for the lower classes. [[Cotton]] was introduced to [[Sicily]] and [[Spain]] in the 9th century. When Sicily was captured by the [[Normans]], they took the technology to [[Northern Italy]] and then the rest of Europe. [[Silk]] fabric production was reintroduced towards the end of this period and the more sophisticated silk weaving techniques were applied to the other staples.<ref name="pabacker">{{Harvnb|Backer|2005}}.</ref>

The weaver worked at home and marketed his cloth at [[trade fair|fairs]].<ref name="pabacker"/> [[Warp-weighted loom]]s were commonplace in Europe before the introduction of horizontal looms in the 10th and 11th centuries. Weaving became an urban craft and to regulate their trade, craftsmen applied to establish a [[guild]]. These initially were [[merchant guild]]s, but developed into separate [[trade guild]]s for each skill. The cloth merchant who was a member of a city's weavers guild was allowed to sell cloth; he acted as a middleman between the tradesmen weavers and the purchaser. The trade guilds controlled quality and the training needed before an artisan could call himself a weaver.<ref name="pabacker"/>

By the 13th century, an organisational change took place, and a system of [[Putting-out system|putting out]] was introduced. The cloth merchant purchased the wool and provided it to the weaver, who sold his produce back to the merchant. The [[Merchant capitalism|merchant]] controlled the rates of pay and economically dominated the cloth industry.<ref name="pabacker"/> The merchants' prosperity is reflected in the wool towns of eastern England; [[Norwich]], [[Bury St Edmunds]] and [[Lavenham]] being good examples.  Wool was a political issue.<ref name=BHO>
{{cite web |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=33013 |title=The estate of merchants, 1336–1365: IV – 1355–65 |editor=Unwin, George |publisher=Institute of Historical Research |year=1918 |work=Finance and trade under Edward III: The London lay subsidy of 1332 |access-date=18 November 2011 }}</ref> The supply of thread has always limited the output of a weaver. About that time, the spindle method of spinning was replaced by the great wheel and soon after the treadle-driven [[spinning wheel]]. The loom remained the same but with the increased volume of thread it could be operated continuously.<ref name="pabacker"/>

The 14th century saw considerable flux in population. The 13th century had been a period of relative peace; Europe became overpopulated. Poor weather led to a series of poor harvests and starvation. There was great loss of life in the [[Hundred Years War]]. Then in 1346, Europe was struck with the [[Black Death]] and the population was reduced by up to a half. Arable land was labour-intensive and sufficient workers no longer could be found. Land prices dropped, and land was sold and put to sheep pasture. Traders from [[Florence]] and [[Bruges]] bought the wool, then sheep-owning landlords started to weave wool outside the jurisdiction of the city and trade guilds. The weavers started by working in their own homes then production was moved into purpose-built buildings. The working hours and the amount of work were regulated. The putting-out system had been replaced by a [[factory system]].<ref name="pabacker"/> <!-- Dubious POV -->
<!--In the medieval period, weaving was considered part of the set of ''[[mechanic arts|seven mechanical arts]]''.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}-->

The migration of the [[Huguenot Weavers]], [[Calvinist]]s fleeing from religious persecution in mainland Europe, to Britain around the time of [[Revocation of the Edict of Nantes|1685]] challenged the English weavers of cotton, woollen and worsted cloth, who subsequently learned the Huguenots' superior techniques.<ref name=Hug>{{cite web |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=22161 |title=Industries: Silk-weaving |editor-first=William |editor-last=Page |publisher=Institute of Historical Research |year=1911 |work=A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 2: General; Ashford, East Bedfont with Hatton, Feltham, Hampton with Hampton Wick, Hanworth, Laleham, Littleton |access-date=18 November 2011 }}</ref>

===Colonial United States===
[[Colonial America]] relied heavily on [[Great Britain]] for manufactured goods of all kinds. British policy was to encourage the production of raw materials in colonies and discourage manufacturing. The [[Wool Act 1699]] restricted the export of colonial wool.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=46972 |title=An Act for continuing severall Laws therein mentioned, and for explaining the Act intituled An Act to prevent the Exportation of Wooll out of the Kingdoms of Ireland and England into Forreigne Parts and for the Incouragement of the Woollen Manufactures in the Kingdom of England |work=Statutes of the Realm, 1695–1701, vol. 7 |date=1820 |pages=600–02 |access-date=16 February 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Garraty, John A. |author2=Carnes, Mark C. |title=A Short History of the American Nation |edition=8th |year=2000 |publisher=Longman |isbn=0-321-07098-4 |chapter=Chapter Three: America in the British Empire |chapter-url=http://edweb.tusd.k12.az.us/uhs/WebSite/Courses/APUSH/1st%20Sem/Garraty%20Short%20History%20Chapters%201-18/chapter_threei.htm |access-date=2013-10-27 |archive-date=2008-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517130635/http://edweb.tusd.k12.az.us/uhs/WebSite/Courses/APUSH/1st%20Sem/Garraty%20Short%20History%20Chapters%201-18/chapter_threei.htm  }}</ref>
As a result, many people wove cloth from locally produced fibres. The colonists also used wool, [[cotton]] and [[flax]] (linen) for weaving, though [[hemp]] could be made into serviceable canvas and heavy cloth. They could get one cotton crop each year; until the invention of the [[cotton gin]] it was a labour-intensive process to separate the seeds from the fibres. Functional tape, bands, straps, and fringe were woven on box and paddle looms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faulkner Weaver |first=Susan |title=Handwoven Tape: Understanding and Weaving Early American and Contemporary Tape |year=2016}}</ref> <!--It generally took an entire year to produce cloth from raw materials, including processing, spinning, weaving and finishing. Flax and hemp were harvested in the summer, and the stalks [[Flax#Preparation for spinning|retted]] to obtain the long fibers within. Sheep could be [[sheep shearing|sheared]] of wool up to twice yearly, depending on their breed. The relative ease of processing wool and its durability, meant that a great proportion of weaving was wool cloth. {{citation needed|date=October 2011}}-->

A plain weave was preferred as the added skill and time required to make more complex weaves kept them from common use. Sometimes designs were woven into the fabric but most were added after weaving using wood block prints or embroidery. <!--Later, the use of multi-harness looms enabled color or texture patterns to be directly woven into the fabric.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}}-->

===Industrial Revolution===
{{Main|Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution}}
[[File:Weaving shed-Marsden.png|thumb|By 1892, most cotton weaving was done in similar weaving sheds, powered by steam.]]
Before the [[Industrial Revolution]], weaving was a manual craft and wool was the principal staple. In the great wool districts a form of factory system had been introduced but in the uplands weavers worked from home on a [[putting-out system]]. The wooden looms of that time might be broad or narrow; broad looms were those too wide for the weaver to pass the shuttle through the shed, so that the weaver needed an expensive assistant (often an [[apprentice]]).  This ceased to be necessary after [[John Kay (flying shuttle)|John Kay]] invented the [[flying shuttle]] in 1733. The shuttle and the picking stick sped up the process of weaving.{{sfn|Guest|1823|p=8}} There was thus a shortage of thread or a surplus of weaving capacity. The opening of the [[Bridgewater Canal]] in June 1761 allowed cotton to be brought into Manchester, an area rich in fast flowing streams that could be used to power machinery. Spinning was the first to be mechanised ([[spinning jenny]], [[spinning mule]]), and this led to limitless thread for the weaver.

[[Edmund Cartwright]] first proposed building a weaving machine that would function similar to recently developed cotton-spinning mills in 1784, drawing scorn from critics who said the weaving process was too nuanced to automate.<ref name=BBC2>{{cite news |title=Historic Figures: Edmund Cartwright |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cartwright_edmund.shtml}}</ref> He built a factory at [[Doncaster]] and obtained a series of patents between 1785 and 1792.  In 1788, his brother Major [[John Cartwright (political reformer)|John Cartwight]] built Revolution Mill at [[Retford]] (named for the centenary of the [[Glorious Revolution]]).  In 1791, he licensed his loom to the Grimshaw brothers of [[Manchester]], but their Knott Mill burnt down the following year (possibly a case of arson).  Edmund Cartwight was granted a reward of £10,000 by [[UK Parliament|Parliament]] for his efforts in 1809.<ref>English, W. (1969). ''The Textile Industry''. pp. 89–97.</ref><ref>Chaloner, William Henry (1963). ''People and Industries''. pp. 45–54.</ref>  However, success in power-weaving also required improvements by others, including H. Horrocks of [[Stockport]].  Only during the two decades after about 1805, did [[Power loom|power-weaving]] take hold. At that time there were 250,000 hand weavers in the UK.{{sfn|Timmins|1993}}  Textile manufacture was one of the leading sectors in the [[Great Britain|British]] [[Industrial Revolution]], but weaving was a comparatively late sector to be mechanised.  The loom became semi-automatic in 1842 with Kenworthy and Bulloughs [[Lancashire Loom]]. The various innovations took weaving from a home-based [[artisan]] activity (labour-intensive and man-powered) to [[steam engine|steam]] driven [[factory|factories]] process. A large metal manufacturing industry grew to produce the looms, firms such as [[Howard & Bullough]] of [[Accrington]], and [[Tweedales and Smalley]] and [[Platt Brothers]]. Most power weaving took place in weaving sheds, in small [[Mill town|towns]] circling [[Greater Manchester]] away from the cotton spinning area. The earlier combination mills where spinning and weaving took place in adjacent buildings became rarer. Wool and [[worsted]] weaving took place in [[West Yorkshire]] and particular [[Bradford]], here there were large factories such as Lister's or Drummond's, where all the processes took place.{{sfn|Bellerby|2005|p=17}} Both men and women with weaving skills emigrated, and took the knowledge to their new homes in New England, to places like [[Pawtucket, Rhode Island|Pawtucket]] and [[Lowell, Massachusetts|Lowell]].

Woven '[[Greige goods|grey cloth]]' was then sent to the finishers where it was bleached, dyed and printed. [[Natural dye]]s were originally used, with [[synthetic dye]]s coming in the second half of the 19th century. A demand for new dyes followed the discovery of [[mauveine]] in 1856, and its popularity in fashion. Researchers continued to explore the chemical potential of [[coal tar]] waste from the growing number of [[Gasworks|gas works]] in Britain and Europe, creating an entirely new sector in the [[Chemical industry#Expansion and maturation|chemical industry]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Nenadic |first1=Stana |last2=Tuckett |first2=Sally |year=2013 |title=Colouring the Nation: Dyeing and printing techniques |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/collections-research/our-research/highlights-of-previous-projects/colouring-the-nation/research/dyeing-and-printing-techniques/the-rise-of-synthetic-dyes/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421193631/http://www.nms.ac.uk:80/collections-research/our-research/highlights-of-previous-projects/colouring-the-nation/research/dyeing-and-printing-techniques/the-rise-of-synthetic-dyes |archive-date=2017-04-21 |access-date=2021-06-13 |website=National Museums of Scotland |publisher=[[National Museums of Scotland]]}}</ref>

The invention in [[France]] of the [[Jacquard loom]], patented in 1804, enabled complicated patterned cloths to be woven, by using punched cards to determine which threads of coloured yarn should appear on the upper side of the cloth. The jacquard allowed individual control of each warp thread, row by row without repeating, so very complex patterns were suddenly feasible. Samples exist showing calligraphy, and woven copies of engravings. Jacquards could be attached to handlooms or powerlooms.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 June 2019 |title=A revolutionary invention in Programming patterns: the story of the Jacquard loom |url=https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/jacquard-loom |url-status=live |archive-url=https://www.webarchive.org.uk/wayback/archive/20200410101455/https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/jacquard-loom |archive-date=2020-04-10 |access-date=2021-06-13 |website=Science and Industry Museum |publisher=[[Science and Industry Museum]]}}</ref>

A distinction can be made between the role and lifestyle and status of a handloom weaver, and that of the power loom weaver and craft weaver. The perceived threat of the power loom led to disquiet and industrial unrest. Well known protests movements such as the [[Luddite]]s and the [[Chartism|Chartists]] had handloom weavers amongst their leaders. In the early 19th-century power weaving became viable. Richard Guest in 1823 made a comparison of the productivity of power and handloom weavers:

<blockquote>A very good Hand Weaver, a man twenty-five or thirty years of age, will weave two pieces of nine-eighths shirting per week, each twenty-four yards long, and containing one hundred and five shoots of weft in an inch, the reed of the cloth being a forty-four, Bolton count, and the warp and weft forty hanks to the pound, A Steam Loom Weaver, fifteen years of age, will in the same time weave seven similar pieces.{{sfn|Guest|1823|p=47}}</blockquote>

He then speculates about the wider economics of using power loom weavers:
[[File:Powerloom weaving in 1835.jpg|thumb|Women featured weaving at power looms in 1835.]]
<blockquote>...it may very safely be said, that the work is done in a Steam Factory containing two hundred Looms, would, if done by hand Weavers, find employment and support for a population of more than two thousand persons.{{sfn|Guest|1823|p=48}}</blockquote>With the Industrial Revolution came a growth in opportunity for women to work within textile factories. However, in spite of their gender, their work was perceived to have a lower social and economic value than work done by their male counterparts.<ref name=":1" />

===Modern day===
[[File:Webereiklasse Webmeister Kurt Wanke, Bauhaus Dessau.jpg|thumb|Weavers of the [[Bauhaus]] workshop in a photo taken by Lux Feininger.]]
In the 1920s the weaving workshop of the [[Bauhaus]] design school in Germany aimed to raise weaving, previously seen as a craft, to a fine art, and also to investigate the industrial requirements of modern weaving and fabrics.<ref>Smith, T'ai (2014). ''Bauhaus weaving theory: From feminine craft to mode of design''. Minnesota: [[University of Minnesota Press]].</ref> Under the direction of [[Gunta Stölzl]], the workshop experimented with unorthodox materials, including cellophane, fibreglass, and metal.<ref name=met>Winton, A.G. (2007). [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bauh/hd_bauh.htm "The Bauhaus, 1919–1933"]. ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History''. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 11 December 2016.</ref>  From expressionist tapestries to the development of soundproofing and light-reflective fabric, the workshop's innovative approach instigated a modernist theory of weaving.<ref name="met" /> Former Bauhaus student and teacher [[Anni Albers]] published the seminal 20th-century text ''On Weaving'' in 1965.<ref>Albers, Anni (1965). ''On Weaving''. Middletown, Connecticut: [[Wesleyan University Press]].</ref> Other notables from the Bauhaus weaving workshop include [[Otti Berger]], [[Margaretha Reichardt]], and [[Benita Koch-Otte]].

In the Bauhaus, the weaving workshop was considered "the women's department", and many women were forced to join against wishes to study another art form.<ref name=":2" /> Some weavers, like [[Helene Nonné-Schmidt]] believed that women were made to weave because they could only produce work in 2-D. She thought women lacked the spatial imagination and genius men had to work in other mediums.<ref name=":4" />

Hand weaving of [[Persian carpet]]s and [[kilim]]s has been an important element of the tribal crafts of many of the subregions of modern day [[Iran]]. Examples of carpet types are the [[Kerman carpet|Lavar Kerman]] carpet from [[Kerman]] and the [[Seraband rug]] from [[Arak, Iran|Arāk]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-23 |title=Types Of Persian Rugs |url=https://www.catalinarug.com/rug-encyclopedia/origins-of-rugs/part-2-types-of-persian-rugs/ |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=Catalina Rug |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Seraband rug {{!}} Persian, Hand-Knotted & Wool {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Seraband-rug |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

In Southeast Asia, some communities are working to revive weaving traditions as a way to address poverty, improve living conditions, support local communities, and to promote environmental sustainability. Several initiatives have been established to support this effort, such as the Maybank Women Eco-Weavers program by the Maybank Foundation which currently operates in Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia. This program helps create opportunities for women weavers throughout the Southeast Asia region to improve their livelihoods and to give them financial independence.<ref name="maybankk">{{cite web |title=Weaving Communities |url=http://www.maybank.com/en/blogs/2023/09/20.page. |website=Maybank |access-date=December 9, 2024}}</ref>

Additionally, similar programs exist in Taiwan and in the Philippines. In Taiwan, The Lihang Studio and S’uraw Education was founded by Yuma Taru to revive the Atayal weaving culture and to promote indigenous education in weaving and dyeing. In the Philippines, the Kyyangan Weavers Association was established in the Ifugao Province as a way to conserve and promote the Ifugao weaving culture and other traditional practices. Also, this association collaborates with academic institutions, government agencies and other non-government organizations on research and product development to be able to offer economic opportunities for communities.<ref name="TaiInsight">{{cite web |last1=Young |first1=Shau-lou |title=Revitalising Indigenous Weaving Cultures across Borders: Conversations and Collaborations between Taiwan and the Philippines |url=https://taiwaninsight.org/2023/02/10/revitalising-indigenous-weaving-cultures-across-borders-conversations-and-collaborations-between-taiwan-and-the-philippines/ |website=Taiwan Insight |access-date=9 December 2024}}</ref>

==Types Of Weaving==
===Hand loom weavers===
Handloom weaving was done by both genders but men outnumbered women partially due to the strength needed to batten.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Burnette |first1=Joyce |title=Women Workers in the British Industrial Revolution |url=http://eh.net/encyclopedia/women-workers-in-the-british-industrial-revolution/ |website=EH.net |access-date=15 April 2019 |date=26 March 2008}}</ref>{{sfn|Freethy|2005|p=62}}  They worked from home sometimes in a well-lit attic room. The women of the house would spin the thread they needed, and attend to finishing. Later women took to weaving, they obtained their thread from the [[cotton mill|spinning mill]], and working as [[outworker]]s on a [[piecework]] contract. Over time competition from the power looms drove down the piece rate and they existed in increasing poverty.

===Power loom weavers===
{{Further|Queen Street Mill}}
Power loom workers were usually girls and young women. They had the security of fixed hours, and except in times of hardship, such as in the [[cotton famine]], regular income. They were paid a wage and a piece work bonus. Even when working in a combined mill, weavers stuck together and enjoyed a tight-knit community.{{sfn|Bellerby|2005|p=24}} The women usually minded the four machines and kept the looms oiled and clean. They were assisted by 'little tenters', children on a fixed wage who ran errands and did small tasks. They learnt the job of the weaver by watching.{{sfn|Freethy|2005|p=62}} Often they would be [[Education Act 1870|half timers]], carrying a green card which teacher and overlookers would sign to say they had turned up at the mill in the morning and the afternoon at the school.{{sfn|Freethy|2005|p=86}} At fourteen or so they come full-time into the mill, and started by sharing looms with an experienced worker where it was important to learn quickly as they would both be on piece work.Serious problems with the loom were left to the [[tackler]] to sort out. He would inevitably be a man, as were usually the overlookers. The mill had its health and safety issues, there was a reason why the women tied their hair back with scarves. Inhaling cotton dust caused lung problems, and the noise was causing total hearing loss. Weavers would [[Mee-mawing|mee-maw]] as normal conversation was impossible.  Weavers used to 'kiss the shuttle', that is, suck thread through the eye of the shuttle. This left a foul taste in the mouth due to the oil, which was also [[carcinogenic]].{{sfn|Freethy|2005|p=121}}

===Craft weavers===
[[File:Weavers Loom.jpg|thumb|Pedal powered loom used by Skye Weavers, Isle of Skye, Scotland]]
[[Arts and Crafts Movement|Arts and Crafts]] was an international design philosophy that originated in England<ref name=triggs>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924032649828 |quote=Chapters in the History of the Arts and Crafts Movement. |first=Oscar Lovell |last=Triggs |title=Chapters in the History of the Arts and Crafts Movement |publisher=Bohemia Guild of the Industrial Art League |year=1902 |access-date=2010-08-28 }}</ref> and flourished between 1860 and 1910 (especially the second half of that period), continuing its influence until the 1930s.<ref name="grove"/> Instigated by the artist and writer [[William Morris]] (1834–1896) during the 1860s<ref name=triggs/> and inspired by the writings of [[John Ruskin]] (1819–1900), it had its earliest and most complete development in the British Isles<ref name="grove">{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts, Volume 1 |isbn=978-0-19-518948-3 |first=Gordon |last=Campbell |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006 }}</ref> but spread to Europe and North America.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Kaplan, Wendy |author2=Crawford, Alan |title=The Arts & Crafts Movement in Europe & America: Design for the Modern World |publisher=Los Angeles County Museum of Art |date=2004}}</ref> It was largely a reaction against mechanisation and the philosophy advocated of traditional craftsmanship using simple forms and often medieval, romantic or folk styles of decoration. Handweaving was highly regarded and taken up as a [[decorative art]].

==Indigenous cultures==

===Native Americans===
{{main|Navajo weaving}}
[[File:Navajo sheep & weaver.jpg|thumb|upright|Weaving a traditional [[Navajo rug]]]]
Textile weaving, using [[cotton]] dyed with pigments, was a dominant craft among pre-[[European colonization of the Americas|colonization]] tribes of the American southwest, including various [[Pueblo]] peoples, the [[Zuni people|Zuni]], and the [[Ute Tribe|Ute]] tribes. The first Spaniards to visit the region wrote about seeing [[Navajo rug|Navajo blankets]]. With the introduction of [[Navajo-Churro sheep]], the resulting woolen products have become very well known. By the 18th century the Navajo had begun to import yarn with their [[favorite color]], Bayeta red. Using an upright loom, the Navajo wove blankets worn as garments and then rugs after the 1880s for trade. Navajo traded for commercial wool, such as Germantown, imported from Pennsylvania.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HISTORY OF NAVAJO RUGS & BLANKETS |url=https://camerontradingpost.com/history-of-navajo-rugs-blankets.html |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=Cameron Trading Post |language=en-US}}</ref> Under the influence of European-American settlers at trading posts, Navajos created new and distinct styles, including "Two Gray Hills" (predominantly black and white, with traditional patterns), "Teec Nos Pos" (colorful, with very extensive patterns), "Ganado" (founded by [[Don Lorenzo Hubbell]]), red dominated patterns with black and white, "Crystal" (founded by J. B. Moore), "Oriental" and [[Persian rug|Persian]] styles (almost always with natural dyes), "Wide Ruins," "Chinlee," banded geometric patterns, "Klagetoh," diamond type patterns, "Red [[Mesa]]" and bold diamond patterns. Many of these patterns exhibit a fourfold symmetry, which is thought to embody traditional ideas about harmony, or ''hózhó''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nez |first=V |date=2018 |title=SA'AH NAAGHÁI BIK'EH HÓZHÓÓN TEACHINGS |url=https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1095&context=educ_llss_etds |access-date=January 12, 2024}}</ref>

===Amazon cultures===
Among the indigenous people of the [[Amazon basin]] densely woven [[Arecaceae|palm]]-[[Bast (biology)|bast]] mosquito netting, or tents, were utilized by the [[Panoan]]s, [[Tupinambá people|Tupinambá]], Western [[Tucano, Brazil|Tucano]], Yameo, Záparoans, and perhaps by the indigenous peoples of the central [[Huallaga River]] basin (Steward 1963:520). Aguaje palm-bast (Mauritia flexuosa, Mauritia minor, or swamp palm) and the frond spears of the Chambira palm ([[Astrocaryum chambira]], A.munbaca, A.tucuma, also known as Cumare or Tucum) have been used for centuries by the [[Urarina]] of the Peruvian [[Amazon Basin|Amazon]] to make cordage, net-bags [[hammock]]s, and to weave [[textile|fabric]]. Among the [[Urarina]], the production of woven palm-fiber goods is imbued with varying degrees of an aesthetic attitude, which draws its authentication from referencing the Urarina's primordial past.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dean |first=Bartholomew |date=2009 |title=Introduction: Power, Belief, Wealth |url=https://academic.oup.com/florida-scholarship-online/book/29067/chapter-abstract/241586260?redirectedFrom=fulltext |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=academic.oup.com}}</ref> Urarina mythology attests to the centrality of weaving and its role in engendering Urarina society. The post-[[diluvial]] [[creation myth]] accords women's weaving knowledge a pivotal role in Urarina social reproduction.
<ref>Dean, Bartholomew (2009). [http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07 ''Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia'']. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. {{ISBN|978-0-8130-3378-5}}</ref> 
Even though palm-fiber cloth is regularly removed from circulation through [[mortuary]] rites, Urarina palm-fiber wealth is neither completely [[inalienable right|inalienable]], nor [[Fungibility|fungible]] since it is a fundamental medium for the expression of labor and exchange. The circulation of palm-fiber wealth stabilizes a host of social relationships, ranging from marriage and fictive [[kinship]] (''compadrazco'', spiritual compeership) to perpetuating relationships with the deceased.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1525/mua.1994.18.1.3 |title=Multiple Regimes of Value: Unequal Exchange and the Circulation of Urarina Palm-Fiber Wealth |journal=Museum Anthropology |volume=18 |pages=3–20 |year=1994 |last1=Dean |first1=Bartholomew}}</ref>

==Computer science==
The [[Nvidia]] [[Parallel Thread Execution]] ISA derives some terminology (specifically the term Warp to refer to a group of concurrent processing threads) from historical weaving traditions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Parallel Thread Execution ISA Version 6.0 |website=Developer Zone: CUDA Toolkit Documentation |publisher=NVIDIA Corporation |access-date=27 October 2017 |url=http://docs.nvidia.com/cuda/parallel-thread-execution/index.html#set-of-simt-multiprocessors-with-on-chip-shared-memory |date=22 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042758/http://docs.nvidia.com/cuda/parallel-thread-execution/index.html |archive-date=28 October 2017}}</ref>

== Gender politics ==

=== Women's work ===
{{Further information|Women's work}}
Weaving is a practice that is typically considered to be "women's work", either part of their employment, cultural practices, or leisure.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Weltge-Wortmann |first=Sigrid |title=Women's work: textile art from the Bauhaus |date=1993 |publisher=Chronicle Books |isbn=0-8118-0466-6 |location=San Francisco |oclc=27894429}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Müller |first=Ulrike |title=Bauhaus women: art, handicraft, design |date=2009 |publisher=Flammarion |others=Ingrid Radewaldt, Sandra Kemker |isbn=978-2-08-030120-8 |edition=English language |location=Paris |page=34 |oclc=432409234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vetter |first=Lisa Pace |title="Women's work" as political art: weaving and dialectical politics in Homer, Aristophanes, and Plato |date=2005 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=0-7391-1063-2 |location=Lanham, Md. |page=1 |oclc=57414764}}</ref> The categorization of weaving as women's work has bled into many fields, from art history, anthropology, sociology, and even psychology. While claiming that women had not contributed much to civilization's history, [[Sigmund Freud]] wrote that "one technique which they may have invented [is] that of plaiting and weaving."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=New introductory lectures on psycho-analysis |date=1989 |publisher=Norton |others=James Strachey, Peter Gay |isbn=0-393-00743-X |edition=Standard |location=New York |page=132 |oclc=23591744}}</ref>

Women's work is often not recorded as a central activity to building Western history and culture.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Elizabeth |title=Women's work, 1840-1940 |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Economic History Society |isbn=0-521-55265-6 |edition=1st Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |page=12 |oclc=32468904}}</ref> Yet, some anthropologists argue that textile production facilitated societal establishment and growth, therefore women were integral to perpetuating communities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kruger |first=Kathryn Sullivan |title=Weaving the word: the metaphorics of weaving and female textual production |date=2001 |publisher=Susquehanna University Press |isbn=1-57591-052-7 |location=Selinsgrove [Pa.] |pages=21–22 |oclc=45466154}}</ref>  To record their stories, beliefs, and symbols important to their culture, women engaged in weaving, [[Embroidery|embroidering]], or other [[Fiber art|fiber practices]]. These practices have existed for centuries documented through art history, myth, and oral history and are still practiced today.

=== Reception in the mainstream art world ===
Weaving is often classified as "[[craft]]" alongside other art forms like ceramics, embroidery, [[basket weaving]], and more. Historically, there has been a hierarchy between artists who were considered "[[craftspeople]]" and artists who worked in traditional mediums of painting and sculpture.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adamson |first=Glenn |date=2020-01-13 |title=How Craft Entered the Mainstream Art World |url=https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-art-embracing-craft |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=Artsy |language=en}}</ref>  The traditional artists wanted to keep artisans in the minority{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}, so there was little reception for arts that were considered craft.
[[File:The Anni Albers show at Tate Modern is astonishing.jpg|thumb|Photo of weavings exhibited in Anni Albers' retrospective at Tate Modern in 2018.]]
In 1939, art critic [[Clement Greenberg]] wrote "[[Avant-Garde and Kitsch]]" where he presented his ideas about "high" and "low" art. His definition of "low" art was likely informed by years of theory against decoration and ornamentation, which was correlated with femininity in the early 1900s by critics like [[Adolf Loos]] and [[Karl Scheffler]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Loos |first=Adolf |title=Ornament and crime: selected essays |date=1998 |others=Adolf Opel |isbn=1-57241-046-9 |publisher=Ariadne Press |location=Riverside, Calif. |oclc=36883998 |url=https://archive.org/details/ornamentcrimesel0000loos/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Scheffler |first=Karl |title=Berlin ein Stadtschicksal |date=2015 |publisher=Suhrkamp Verlag |isbn=978-3-518-42511-4 |edition=1st |location=Berlin |oclc=930814184}}</ref> Although Greenberg never explicitly says the word "craft", many scholars postulate that this is one of the origins of Western opposition to weaving, and more largely art that is considered craft.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Auther |first=Elissa |date=2004 |title=The Decorative, Abstraction, and the Hierarchy of Art and Craft in the Art Criticism of Clement Greenberg |journal=Oxford Art Journal |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=339–364 |doi=10.1093/oaj/27.3.339 |jstor=20107990 |issn=0142-6540}}</ref>

Only recently has the art world begun to recognize weaving as an art form and to exhibit woven articles as art objects. Exhibitions of large scope have been organized to affirm the importance of textiles in the art historical canon, such as the [[Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles]]' With Pleasure: Pattern and Decoration in American Art 1972–1985.<ref>{{Cite web |title=With Pleasure: Pattern and Decoration in American Art 1972–1985 |url=https://www.moca.org/exhibition/with-pleasure |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=www.moca.org}}</ref> Women weavers, like [[Anni Albers]], [[Lenore Tawney]], [[Magdalena Abakanowicz]], [[Olga de Amaral]], and [[Sheila Hicks]], are now the subject of exhibitions and major retrospectives across the world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tate |title=Anni Albers {{!}} Tate Modern |url=https://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-modern/anni-albers |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=Tate |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gipson |first=Ferren |title=Women's work: from feminine arts to feminist art |date=2022 |publisher=Frances Lincoln |isbn=978-0-7112-6465-6 |location=London}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Fashion}}
* [[Textile]]
* [[Fiber]]
* [[Textile arts]]
* [[Fiber art]]
* [[Craft]]
* [[Basket weaving]]
* [[Persian weave]]
* [[Petate]]
* [[Textile manufacturing terminology]]
* [[Weaving (mythology)]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |url=http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/history/middle.htm#Weaving%20and%20the%20Textile%20Industry |title=Technology in the Middle Ages, History of Technology |last=Backer |first=Patricia |date=10 June 2005 |series=Technology and Civilization (Tech 198) |publisher=San Jose State University |access-date=18 November 2011 |location=San Jose, California, USA |archive-date=4 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304180952/http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/history/middle.htm#Weaving%20and%20the%20Textile%20Industry}}
* {{cite book |last=Bellerby |first=Rachel |title=Chasing the Sixpence: The lives of Bradford Mill Folk |publisher=Fort Publishing Ltd |location=Ayr |year=2005 |isbn=0-9547431-8-0 }}
* {{Citation |last=Collier |first=Ann M |title=A Handbook of Textiles |publisher=Pergamon Press |year=1974 |page=258 |isbn=0-08-018057-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Dooley |first=William H. |title=Textiles |publisher=D.C. Heath and Co. |location=Boston, USA |year=1914 |edition=Project Gutenberg |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/24077 |access-date=30 October 2011 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Feng |first=Menglong |date=November 2001 |title=''Stories Old and New''. By Feng Menglong, translated by Shuhui Yang and Yunqin Yang. pp. 794, 10 illus. from the 1620 edition. Seattle, University of Washington Press, 2000 |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=407–409 |doi=10.1017/s1356186301380343 |s2cid=162905651 |issn=1356-1863 }}
* {{cite book |last=Freethy |first=Ron |title=Memories of the Lancashire Cotton Mills |publisher=Countryside Books |year=2005 |location=Newbury, Berkshire |series=Aspects of Local History |isbn=978-1-84674-104-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Guest |first=Richard |title=A compendious history of the cotton-manufacture |publisher=Author, Printed by Joseph Pratt, Chapel Walks |location=Manchester |year=1823 |url=http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/richard-guest/a-compendious-history-of-the-cotton-manufacture--with-a-disproval-of-the-claim--seu/1-a-compendious-history-of-the-cotton-manufacture--with-a-disproval-of-the-claim--seu.shtml |access-date=2011-11-23}}
* {{cite book |last=Li |first=Lillian M. |date=1981 |title=China's silk trade: traditional industry in the modern world, 1842–1937 |publisher=Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |isbn=978-0-674-11962-8 |location=Cambridge, Mass. |edition=1st |volume=97 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1tfjb18 |oclc=576853423 |jstor=j.ctt1tfjb18 }}
* {{cite book
 |title=The last shift: the decline of handloom weaving in nineteenth-century Lancashire
 |first=Geoffrey
 |last=Timmins
 |publisher=Manchester University Press ND
 |year=1993
 |isbn=0-7190-3725-5
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XhoNAQAAIAAJ&q=Timmins+Last+Shift&pg=PA264
 }}
* ''This article incorporates text from'' Textiles ''by William H. Dooley, Boston, D.C. Heath and Co., 1914, a volume in the [[public domain]] and available online from [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/24077 Project Gutenberg]''
{{Refend}}

==External links==
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* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Weaving |volume=28 |pages=440–455 |first=Alan Summerly |last=Cole |short=1}}
* [http://www.cs.arizona.edu/patterns/weaving/weavedocs.html Resource collection] An on-line repository of articles (4720), books (459), illustrations (271), patents (398) and periodicals (1322) relating to weaving.
* [http://www.britishpathe.com/video/weaving-linen British Pathé Weaving Linen 1940-1949] Educational film
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/289 Illustrated Guide of Tilling and Weaving: Rural Life in China] from 1696

{{Lancashire Cotton}}
{{Decorative arts}}
{{Fabric}}
{{textile arts}}
{{Braiding}}
{{weaving}}
{{Prehistoric technology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Weaving| ]]