Editing Westernization

{{Short description|Global adoption of western culture and values}}
'''Westernization''' (or '''Westernisation''', see [[British and American spelling differences|spelling differences]]), also '''[[Europeanisation]]''' or '''occidentalization''' (from the ''[[Occident]]''), is a process whereby [[Society|societies]] come under or adopt what is considered to be [[Western culture]], in areas such as [[Manufacturing|industry]], [[technology]], [[science]], [[education]], [[politics]], [[economics]], [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]], [[law]], [[Social norm|norms]], [[mores]], [[Convention (norm)|customs]], [[tradition]]s, [[Value (ethics)|values]], [[mentality]], [[perception]]s, [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], [[clothing]], [[language]], [[writing system]], [[religion]], and [[Western philosophy|philosophy]]. During [[colonialism]] it often involved the spread of [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thong |first1=Tezenlo |title='To Raise the Savage to a Higher Level': The Westernization of Nagas and their Culture |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |date=July 2012 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=893–918 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X11000412 |id={{ProQuest|1011622231}} |jstor=41478422 |s2cid=145414470 }}</ref> A related concept is '''Northernization''', which is the consolidation or influence of the [[Global North]].<ref>{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|305033607}} |last1=Lloyd |first1=Paulette D |date=2005 |title=An Empirical Test of Theories of World Divisions and Globalization Processes: An International and Comparative Regional Perspective }}{{pn|date=October 2024}}</ref>

Westernization has been a growing influence across the world in the last few centuries, with some thinkers assuming Westernization to be the equivalent of [[Modernization theory|modernization]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Hayford|first=Charles|title=Westernization |editor1-first=David |editor1-last=Pong |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Modern China|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons}}</ref> a way of thought that is often debated. The overall process of Westernization is often two-sided in that Western influences and interests themselves are joined with parts of the affected society, at minimum, to become a more Westernized society, with the putative goal of attaining a Western life or some aspects of it, while Western societies are themselves affected by this process and interaction with non-Western groups.

Westernization traces its roots back to [[Ancient Greece]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}} Later, the [[Roman Empire]] took on the first process of Westernization as it was heavily influenced by Greece and created a new culture based on the principles and values of the Ancient Greek society. The Romans emerged with a culture that grew into a new Western identity based on the [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]] society. Westernization can also be compared to [[acculturation]] and [[enculturation]]. Acculturation is "the process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between cultural groups and their individual members".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Acculturation|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology|publisher=Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology}}</ref> 

After contact, changes in cultural patterns are evident within one or both cultures. Specific to Westernization and the non-Western culture, foreign societies tend to adopt changes in their social systems relative to Western ideology, lifestyle, and physical appearance, along with numerous other aspects, and shifts in culture patterns can be seen to take root as a community becomes acculturated to Western customs and characteristics – in other words, Westernized. The phenomenon of Westernization does not follow any one specific pattern across societies as the degree of adaption and fusion with Western customs will occur at varying magnitudes within different [[communities]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=McLeish |first1=Kenneth |chapter=Westernization |title=Bloomsbury Guide to Human Thought |date=1993 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publications |isbn=978-0-7475-0991-2 }}</ref> Specifically, the extent to which domination, destruction, resistance, survival, adaptation, or modification affect a native culture may differ following inter-ethnic contact.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kottak |first1=Conrad Phillip |title=Window on Humanity: A Concise Introduction to General Anthropology with Powerweb |date=2007 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education |isbn=978-0-07-325893-5 |oclc=1245991011 |url=https://archive.org/details/windowonhumanity0000kott }}{{page needed|date=April 2023}}</ref>

==Western world==
{{Main|Western world}}
[[File:Western World Latin America torn countries.png|right|thumb|The Western world]]
The West was originally defined as the [[Western world]]. A thousand years later, the [[East-West Schism]] separated the [[Catholic Church]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] from each other. The definition of Western changed as the West was influenced by and spread to other nations. Islamic and Byzantine scholars added to the [[Western canon]] when their stores of Greek and Roman literature jump-started the [[Renaissance]]. The [[Cold War]] also reinterpreted the definition of the West by excluding the countries of the former [[Eastern Bloc]]. Today, most modern uses of the term refer to the societies in the West and their close [[genealogical]], [[natural language|linguistic]], and [[philosophical]] descendants. Typically included are those countries whose ethnic identity and dominant culture are derived from [[Culture of Europe|Western European culture]]. Though it shares a similar historical background, the Western world is not a monolithic bloc, as many cultural, linguistic, religious, political, and economic differences exist between Western countries and populations.

==Significantly influenced countries==
The following countries or regions experienced a significant influence by the process of Westernization:
*[[Armenia]]:<ref>({{Cite book |last=Garsoïan |first=Nina |title=Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=1997 |editor-last=R.G. Hovannisian |volume=1 |page=81 |author-link=Nina Garsoïan}})</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Donald Tusk: "I feel at home in Armenia" |date=2020-09-24 |url=https://mediamax.am/en/news/foreignpolicy/34168/ |work=MediaMax}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=92% of the Armenian public considers relations with the EU as very good, FM says at EaP ministerial |date=2020-09-24 |url=https://armenpress.am/eng/news/994276.html |work=Armenpress}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Europe Square inaugurated in Yerevan, Armenia |date=2020-09-24 |url=https://armenpress.am/eng/news/969279.html |work=Armenpress}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The future of the Trio Plus Strategy 2030: building a future of Eastern Partnership |url=http://www.epgencms.europarl.europa.eu/cmsdata/upload/439b3edc-e523-4a0e-a9bc-e6c8db51ed75/NEST_8th_urgency_resolution_EN.pdf}}</ref> Geographically located in the [[Caucasus]] region of [[West Asia]], Armenia's culture has been increasingly influenced by the process of Westernization. Throughout its history, Armenia has been influenced by Western and Eastern civilizations. Armenia became the first state in the world to adopt [[Christianity]] as its official religion in 301 AD. The traditional Armenian homeland composed of [[Eastern Armenia]] and [[Western Armenia]] came under the rule of the [[Roman Armenia|Roman]], Persian, Arab, Ottoman, and Russian empires. Current Armenia gained its independence in 1991, following the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]]. Today, the [[Government of Armenia]] maintains positive relations with Iran, Russia, and the West, including the United States and the [[EU]]. The country participates in various organizations linked to the EU, such as the [[Eastern Partnership]], the [[Euronest Parliamentary Assembly]] and is a member of the [[Council of Europe]], the [[European Political Community]], the [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe|OSCE]], the [[Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation|BSEC]], [[La Francophonie]], and NATO's [[Partnership for Peace]] and [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council]]. In 2017, Armenia signed an extensive agreement with the EU; the [[Armenia-EU Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement|CEPA]] agreement further strengthens economic and political ties. Armenia is also a member of various European organisations for sports, education, and cultural events such as [[UEFA]], the [[European Olympic Committees]], and the [[European Higher Education Area]], and participates in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]].
*[[Azerbaijan]]:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Azerbaijan & the West |date=29 March 2017 |url=https://www.thebusinessyear.com/whats-behind-azerbaijans-shirt-to-the-west/focus}}</ref> Geographically located in the [[Caucasus]] mountain range (natural border between [[Western Asia]] and [[Eastern Europe]]). Azerbaijan borrowed Western traditions mainly as a result of [[Russian Empire|imperial Russian]] influence, with the Muslim world's first [[Opera in Azerbaijan|opera]] and [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|secular democracy]] being established there before its [[Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan|invasion by the Soviets]]. Currently, the country participates in various European organizations including the EU's [[Eastern Partnership]], the [[Council of Europe]], and [[GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development|GUAM]]. It is also a member of European organisations for sports such as [[UEFA]] and the [[European Olympic Committees]], and regularly participates in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]]. Despite this, the country remains an [[Democracy Index|authoritarian regime]] with considerable human rights and press freedom issues.
*[[Cape Verde]]:<ref>{{Cite web |work=Afrol News |title=Cape Verde display different interests in integration |url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/18640}}</ref> An insular country in [[West Africa]], Cape Verde has influences of European culture (particularly Portuguese) and, together with the [[Azores]] and [[Madeira]] ([[Portugal]]), and the [[Canary Islands]] ([[Spain]]), it is part of the archipelagos of [[Macaronesia]]. Due to this, the country has shared close diplomatic and cultural relations with both [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian countries]] and has even tried to approach Western organizations, like the [[European Union|EU]] and [[NATO]].
*[[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], and [[Singapore]]:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Puga |first=Rogério Miguel |url=https://www.academia.edu/3785763 |title=The British Presence in Macau, 1637–1793 |date=2013 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |isbn=978-988-8139-79-8 |series=[[Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|Royal Asiatic Society]] |location=[[Hong Kong]] |language=en |lccn=2013383538 |ol=25637013M |author-link=Rogerio Miguel Puga |access-date=2022-03-22}}</ref> Despite their geographical positions in [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]], due to the heavy influences of [[Culture of Europe|European heritage]] (particularly [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]]) culture, they are at-least partially westernized.
*[[Israel]]:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arndt |first1=Richard T. |last2=Rubin |first2=David Lee |title=The Fulbright Difference: 1948-1992 |date=1993 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-4128-2424-8 |page=53 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LqMwKTUN7f0C&pg=PA53 }}</ref><ref name="Sheldon Kirshner">{{Cite web |last=Sheldon Kirshner |date=2013-10-16 |title=Is Israel Really a Western Nation? |url=http://sheldonkirshner.com/?p=1673 |access-date=2013-11-09 |publisher=Sheldon Kirshner Journal}}</ref> Although Israel is geographically located in [[Western Asia]], many Western cultural influences were brought in Israel by [[Aliyah|Jewish settlers]] from the [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]], particularly countries like [[Canada]], [[France]], [[Germany]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]]. It is a member of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]. It is often a member of European organisations for sports and cultural events such as [[UEFA]] and [[Eurovision Song Contest|Eurovision]], which is due in large part to Israel's ouster from their respective Asian counterparts. According to [[Sammy Smooha]], a professor emeritus of [[sociology]] at Haifa University, Israel is described as a "hybrid," a modern and developed "semi-Western" state. With time, he acknowledged, Israel will become "more and more Western." But as a result of the ongoing [[Arab–Israeli conflict]], full Westernization will be a slow process in Israel.<ref name="Sheldon Kirshner" />
*[[Japan]], [[South Korea]], and [[Taiwan]]:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Early Westernization & Modernization in Japan 1868-1900 &#124; Japan Experience |url=https://www.japanvisitor.com/japanese-culture/history/westernization}}</ref> Although they are geographically located in [[East Asia]], the three countries have westernized themselves by adopting democratic forms of government, free market economic systems, major contributions to Western science and technology, and could be described as "hybrid", "semi-Western" states. 
*[[Americas]]:<ref name="west">{{Cite book |last=Huntington, Samuel P. |url=https://archive.org/details/clashofcivilizat00hunt/page/38 |title=Clash of Civilizations |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-684-84441-1 |edition=6th |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/clashofcivilizat00hunt/page/38 38–39] |quote=The origin of western civilization is usually dated to 700 or 800 AD. In general, researchers consider that it has three main components, in Europe, North America and South america. [...] However, South America has followed a quite different development path from Europe and North America. Although it is a scion of European civilization, it also incorporates more elements of indigenous American civilizations compared to those of Northern America and Europe. It also currently has a more corporatist and authoritarian culture. Both Europe and Northern America felt the effects of Reformation and the combination of Catholic and Protestant cultures. Historically, many countries in the Americas has been only Catholic, although this may be changing. [...] the Americas could be considered, or a sub-set, within Western civilization, or can also be considered a separate civilization, intimately related to the West, but divided as to whether it belongs with it. |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> Most countries in Americas are considered Western countries, largely because most of its peoples are descended from Europeans (Spanish and Portuguese settlers and later [[European immigration to the Americas|immigration from other European nations]]), and their society operates in a highly Westernized way. Most countries in the Americas use either [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Spanish Language|Spanish]] or [[Portuguese Language|Portuguese]] as their official language. According to the ''CIA World Factbook'', there has also been considerable immigration to South America, particularly to [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], and [[Uruguay]], from European nations other than [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] (for example, from [[Germany]], [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], etc.—see [[Immigration to Argentina]], [[Immigration to Brazil]], [[Immigration to Chile]], and [[Immigration to Uruguay]]).{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}
*[[Lebanon]]:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lebanon at a Glance |website=[[The New York Times]] |date=23 January 1976 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/01/23/archives/lebanon-at-a-glance.html}}</ref> Geographically located in Western Asia, Lebanon is the most Westernized country in the Arab world. In ancient history, Lebanon was ruled by the [[Phoenicia under Hellenistic rule|Hellenistic]] and [[Phoenicia under Roman rule|Roman]] empires. Even though it was later ruled by the Caliphate, Lebanon has the highest proportion of Christians in the Arab world, and Christians have dominated the country politically, economically and culturally. Since it was historically a [[Greater Lebanon|French mandate]], France promotes French culture and European-style education in Lebanon. At that time, Beirut was known as the "Little Paris of the Middle East". Currently, French language is still widely spoken and Lebanon is a member of the Organization of [[la Francophonie]]. 
*[[Philippines]]:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Heydarian |first=Richard |date=2015-01-12 |title=Philippines' Shallow Capitalism: Westernization Without Prosperity |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/richard-javad-heydarian/philippines-shallow-capit_b_6441868.html |access-date=19 November 2016 |website=The Huffington Post}}</ref> Geographically located in [[Southeast Asia]], due to heavy influences of European (particularly [[Spain|Spanish]]) and [[United States|American]] cultures in [[Culture of the Philippines|Filipino culture]], the country is considered Westernized. Moreover, nearly 90% of the Filipino population practices Christianity.
*[[Turkey]]:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cagaptay |first1=Soner |title=The Rise of Turkey: The Twenty-First Century's First Muslim Power |date=2014 |publisher=Potomac Books |isbn=978-1-61234-651-9 |page=44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V8vQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 }}</ref> Although geographically only 3% of Turkey lies in [[Southeastern Europe|Europe]] ([[East Thrace]]) and the rest in [[Western Asia]], Turkey is one of the most Westernized Turkic countries. The country has a similar economic system, has a [[European Union–Turkey Customs Union|customs union]] with the [[European Union]] in addition to being an [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|official candidate for membership]], and is a member of traditional European & Western organisations such as the [[OECD]], the [[Council of Europe]], and [[NATO]]. It is also a member of European organisations for sports such as [[UEFA]] and the [[European Olympic Committees]], and has participated in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]]. Relations between Turkey and Western countries have been deteriorating since the 2010s.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

==Views==
===Kishore Mahbubani===
[[Kishore Mahbubani]]'s book entitled ''The Great Convergence: Asia, the West, and the Logic of One World'' (Public Affairs), is very optimistic.{{Why|date=August 2014}} It proposes that a new global civilization is being created. The majority of non-Western countries admire and adhere to Western living standards. It says this newly emerging global order has to be ruled through new policies and attitudes. He argues that policymakers all over the world must change their preconceptions and accept that we live in one world. The national interests must be balanced with global interests and the power must be shared. Mahbubani urges that only through these actions can we create a world that converges benignly.

[[Samuel P. Huntington]] posits a conflict between "the West and the Rest" and offers three forms of general action that non-Western civilizations can react toward Western countries.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-62397-6_6 |chapter=The Clash of Civilizations? |title=Culture and Politics |year=2000 |last1=Huntington |first1=Samuel P. |pages=99–118 |isbn=978-1-349-62399-0 }}</ref>
# Non-Western countries can attempt to achieve isolation to preserve their own values and protect themselves from Western invasion. He argues that the cost of this action is high and only a few states can pursue it.
# According to the theory of "[[Bandwagoning|band-wagoning]]" non-Western countries can join and accept [[Western values]].
# Non-Western countries can make an effort to balance Western power through modernization. They can develop economic, and military power and cooperate with other non-Western countries against the West while still preserving their own values and institutions.

Mahbubani counters this argument in his other book, ''The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to the East''. This time, he argues that Western influence is now "unraveling", with [[March to Modernity|Eastern powers]] such as China arising. He states:
{{blockquote|…the 5.6 billion people who live outside the West no longer believe in the innate or inherent superiority of Western civilization. Instead, many are beginning to question whether the West remains the most civilized part of the world. What we are witnessing today…is the progressive unwrapping of these many layers of Western influences.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahbubani |first1=Kishore |title=The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to the East |date=2009 |publisher=PublicAffairs |isbn=978-1-58648-628-0 |pages=129–130 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdw3hyNPj34C&pg=PA129 }}</ref>}} He explains the decline of Western influence, stating reasons as to the loss of Western credibility with the rest of the world.
# There is an increasing perception that Western countries will prioritize their domestic problems over international issues, despite their spoken and written promises of having global interests and needs.
# The West has become increasingly biased and close-minded in their perception of "non-Western" countries such as China, declaring it an "un-free" country for not following a democratic form of government. 
# The West uses a double standard when dealing with international issues. 
# As the biggest Eastern populations gain more power, they are moving away from the Western influences they sought after in the past. The "anti-Americanism" sentiment is not temporary, as Westerners like to believe – the change in the Eastern mindset has become far too significant for it to change back.

===Samuel P. Huntington===
In contrast to territorial delineation, others, like the American political scientist [[Samuel P. Huntington]] in ''[[The Clash of Civilizations]]'', consider what is "Western" based on religious affiliation, such as deeming the majority-[[Western Christianity|Western Christian]] part of Europe and North America the West, and creating 6 other civilizations, including [[Latin America]], [[Confucian]], Japanese, [[Islamic]], [[Hindu]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Slavic-Orthodox]], to organize the rest of the globe.<ref>{{cite web|last=Graham|first=James|title=Samuel P. Huntington's Clash of Civilizations|url=http://www.historyorb.com/world/clashofcivilizations.php|publisher=History Orb|access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref> Huntington argued that after the end of the [[Cold War]], world politics had been moved into a new aspect in which non-Western civilizations were no more the exploited recipients of Western civilization but become another important actor joining the West to shape and move the world history.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murden |first1=Simon |chapter=Cultures in world affairs |pages=414–427 |editor1-last=Baylis |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Smith |editor2-first=Steve |editor3-last=Owens |editor3-first=Patricia |title=The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations |date=2011 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-956909-0 }}</ref> Huntington believed that while the age of [[ideology]] had ended, the world had only reverted to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slideshare.net/mehbaliyev/rashad-mehbaliyev-civilizations-their-nature-and-clash-possibilities|title=Civilizations, their nature and clash possibilities (c) Rashad Mehbal…|last=mehbaliyev|date=30 October 2010}}{{self-published inline|date=April 2023}}</ref>

===Edward Said===
In ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'' [[Edward Said]] views Westernization as it occurred in the process of [[colonization]], an exercise of essentializing a "subject race" in order to more effectively dominate them. Said references [[Arthur Balfour]], the British Prime Minister from 1902 to 1905, who regarded the rise of nationalism in Egypt in the late 19th century as counterproductive to a "benevolent" system of occupational rule. Balfour frames his argument in favor of continued rule over the Egyptian people by appealing to England's great "understanding" of Egypt's civilization and purporting that England's cultural strengths complemented and made them natural superiors to Egypt's racial deficiencies. Regarding this claim, Said says, "Knowledge to Balfour means surveying a civilization from its origins to its prime to its decline – and of course, it means being able to...The object of such knowledge is inherently vulnerable to scrutiny; this object is a 'fact' which, if it develops, changes, or otherwise transforms itself...[the civilization] nevertheless is fundamentally, even ontologically stable. To have such knowledge of such a thing is to dominate it." The act of claiming coherent knowledge of a society in effect objectifies and others it into marginalization, making people who are classified into that race as "almost everywhere nearly the same." Said also argues that this relationship to the "inferior" races, in fact, works to also fortify and make coherent what is meant by "the West"; if "The Oriental is irrational, depraved (fallen), childlike, "different..." then "...the European is rational, virtuous, mature, normal." Thus, "the West" acts as a construction in the similar way as does "the Orient" – it is a created notion to justify a particular set of power relations, in this case, the colonization and rule of a foreign country.

==Process==
{{See also|Western influence on Africa|Anglicisation}}

===Colonization and Europeanization (1400s–1970s)===
{{Main|Colonialism}}{{See also|European diaspora|American diaspora}}
From the 1400s onward, [[Europeanization]] and [[colonialism]] spread gradually over much of the world and controlled different regions during this five centuries long period, [[History of colonialism|colonizing or subjecting]] the majority of the globe.

Following [[World War II]], Western leaders and academics sought to expand innate liberties and international equality. A period of [[decolonization]] began. At the end of the 1960s, most colonies were allowed autonomy. Those new states often adopted some aspects of Western [[politics]] such as a constitution, while frequently reacting against Western culture.{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}

===In the Americas and Oceania===
{{See also|North American frontier|Americanization}}[[File:Spaniard_and_Indian_Produce_a_Mestizo.jpg|thumb|The [[Mestizo|racial mixing]] of Spaniards and indigenous Latin Americans.]]
Due to the [[European colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]] and [[Europeans in Oceania|Oceania]] by [[Europe]]ans, the cultural, ethnic, and linguistic make-up of the Americas and Oceania has been changed. This is most visible in settler colonies such as: [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] in Oceania, and the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Costa Rica]], and [[Uruguay]] in the Americas, where the traditional [[indigenous peoples|indigenous population]] has been predominantly replaced demographically by non-indigenous settlers due to transmitted disease and conflict. This demographic takeover in settler countries has often resulted in the linguistic, social, and cultural marginalisation of indigenous people. Even in countries where large populations of indigenous people remain or the indigenous peoples have mixed ([[mestizo]]) considerably with European settlers, such as countries in Latin America and the Caribbean: [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], [[Panama]], [[Suriname]], [[Ecuador]], [[Bolivia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Belize]], [[Paraguay]], [[South Africa]], [[Colombia]], [[Guatemala]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Guyana]], [[El Salvador]], [[Jamaica]], [[Cuba]], or [[Nicaragua]], relative marginalisation still exists.

Latin America was shaped by Iberian culture, with local religious forms also mixing with Christian influences.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carmagnani |first1=Marcello |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1ppz4m |title=The Other West: Latin America from Invasion to Globalization |last2=Frongia |first2=Rosanna M. Giammanco |date=2011 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24798-7 |edition=1 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1ppz4m }}</ref> In Mexico, indigenous people adopted writing alongside their traditional oral and pictorial forms of communication.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gruzinski |first=Serge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ed0BtAEACAAJ |title=The Conquest of Mexico: The Incorporation of Indian Societies Into the Western World, 16th-18th Centuries |date=1993 |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-0-7456-0873-0 |language=en}}</ref>

===In Asia===
[[File:King Amanullah of Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Amānullāh Khān|King Amanullah Khan]] of [[Kingdom of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] attempted to [[Reforms of Amānullāh Khān and civil war|Westernize his country]] in the 1920s, but tribal revolts caused his abdication.]]
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:TaiwaneseWeddingCouple.tiff|thumbnail|180px|A Taiwanese couple share in a loving embrace, wearing traditional Western wedding garments displayed by the white wedding gown and groom's tuxedo.]] -->

General reactions to Westernization can include [[fundamentalism]], [[protectionism]], or embrace to varying degrees. Countries such as [[Korea]] and [[China]] attempted to adopt a system of [[isolationism]] but have ultimately juxtaposed parts of Western culture into their own, often adding original and unique social influences, as exemplified by the introduction of over 1,300 locations of the traditionally Western fast-food chain [[McDonald's]] into China.<ref>{{cite news |title=McDonald's China Plans To Open A New Store Every Day |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mcdonalds-china-new-stores_n_913071 |work=HuffPost |date=29 July 2011 }}</ref> Specific to [[Taiwan]], the industry of bridal photography (see [[Photography in Taiwan]]) has been significantly influenced by the Western idea of "love". As examined by author Bonnie Adrian, Taiwanese bridal photos of today provide a striking contrast to past accepted norms, contemporary couples often displaying great physical affection and, at times, placed in typically Western settings to augment the modernity, in comparison to the historically prominent relationship, often stoic and distant, exhibited between bride and groom.<ref>{{cite book|last=Adrian|first=Bonnie|title=Framing the Bride: Globalizing Beauty and Romance in Taiwan's Bridal Industry|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=Los Angeles, CA}}</ref> Though Western concepts may have initially played a role in creating this cultural shift in Taiwan, the market and desire for bridal photography has not continued without adjustments and social modifications to this Western notion.

====East Asia====

=====China=====
{{Excerpt|Eastward spread of Western learning}}

=====Korea=====
{{See also|Seohak}}
In [[Korea]], the first contact with Westernization was during the [[Joseon Dynasty]], in the 17th century. Every year, the emperor dispatched a few envoy ambassadors to China and while they were staying in Beijing, the Western missionaries were there. Through the missionaries, Korean ambassadors were able to adopt Western technology. In the 19th century, Korea started to send ambassadors to the foreign countries, other than Japan and [[China]]. While Korea was being Westernized slowly in the late 19th century, Korea had the idea of "Eastern ways and Western frames (東道西器)", meaning that they accepted the Western "bowl", but used it with Eastern principles inside.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}}

=====Japan=====
{{See also|Japanization}}[[File:Chikamatsu Kiken buto no ryakuke.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|An example of 19th-century Westernization of Japanese society: [[Ballroom dance|ballroom dancing]] at the [[Rokumeikan]], [[Tokyo]], 1888]]
In [[Japan]], the [[Netherlands]] continued to play a key role in transmitting Western know-how to the Japanese from the 17th century to the mid-19th century, because the Japanese had only opened their doors to Dutch merchants before US Navy commodore [[Matthew C. Perry]]'s [[Perry Expedition|visit in 1853]]. After Commodore Perry's visit, Japan began to deliberately accept Western culture to the point of hiring Westerners to teach Western customs and traditions to the Japanese starting in the [[Meiji era]]. Since then, many Japanese politicians have encouraged the Westernization of Japan with the use of the term ''[[Datsu-A Ron]]'', which means the argument for "leaving Asia" or "Good-bye Asia". In ''Datsu-A Ron'', "Westernization" was described as an "unavoidable" but "fruitful" change. In contrast, despite many advances in industrial efficiency, Japan has sustained a culture of strict social hierarchy and limited individualization.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dore |first1=Ronald |chapter=Unity and Diversity in World Culture |pages=407–424 [416] |editor1-last=Bull |editor1-first=Hedley |editor2-last=Watson |editor2-first=Adam |title=The Expansion of International Society |date=1984 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-821942-2 }}</ref>

====South Asia====
{{See also|Anglicisation#South Asia}}

=====India=====
{{See also|Cultural history of India#Colonial era}}
At the turn of the 19th century, when India was being conquered by the [[East India Company]], some of its native kingdoms sought [[Western education]] to learn how to deal with the threat.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-09-22 |title=What a false quote about Bengal reveals about our past |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/what-a-false-quote-about-bengal-reveals-about-our-past-101727021145362.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240924072503/https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/what-a-false-quote-about-bengal-reveals-about-our-past-101727021145362.html |archive-date=2024-09-24 |access-date=2024-12-25 |work=Hindustan Times |language=en-us}}</ref>{{bsn|date=December 2024}} India's later [[Indian independence movement|independence movement]] also took inspiration from Western ideas about democracy and human rights.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McLane |first=John R. |title=Indian Nationalism and the Early Congress |date=1977 |publisher=Princeton University Press |jstor=j.ctt13x1cv8}}{{pn|date=October 2024}}</ref> India's ruling class after independence in 1947 remained somewhat Westernized; India's first Prime Minister, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], had such a substantial Britishness that he once described himself as "the last Englishman to rule India."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nanda |first1=B. R. |title=Jawaharlal Nehru |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-564586-6 |pages=253–263 |chapter=Nehru and the British |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195645866.003.0013}}</ref> In 2014, however, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) won power on the back of perceptions of the ruling class being [[Indianisation|insufficiently Indian]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dhingra |first=Sanya |date=2023-08-14 |title=How Hindu Nationalists Redefined Decolonization in India |url=https://newlinesmag.com/argument/how-hindu-nationalists-redefined-decolonization-in-india/ |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=New Lines Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

====Southeast Asia====

=====Thailand=====
Although Thailand is geographically located in [[Southeast Asia]], through the 18th and 19th centuries, Siam faced imperialist pressure from [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]], including many unequal treaties with Western powers and forced concessions of territory; it nevertheless remained the only Southeast Asian country to avoid direct Western colonization. The country became westernized by itself, the Siamese system of government was centralized and initially organized into a modern unitary absolute monarchy during the reign of [[Chulalongkorn]], later as a constitutional monarchy following the [[Siamese revolution of 1932]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leventon |first1=Melissa |last2=Gluckman |first2=Dale Carolyn |title=Modernity Through the Lens: The Westernization of Thai Women's Court Dress |journal=Costume |date=June 2013 |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=216–233 |doi=10.1179/0590887613Z.00000000025 }}</ref> In the late 1950s, Thailand became a major ally of the [[United States]], and played a key anti-communist role in the region as a member of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization|SEATO]]. Currently, Thailand continues to have strong ties to Western countries.

=====Vietnam=====
Starting from the period of the [[Nguyễn dynasty]] as a protectorate of France, the Vietnamese transitioned from [[chữ Hán]] and [[chữ Nôm]] writing systems to the Vietnamese alphabet ([[chữ Quốc ngữ]]). Between the late 19th to early 20th centuries, a number of [[French_colonial_architecture#Vietnam|French style buildings]] were built in [[Saigon]] and [[Hanoi]], becoming two of several locations in Asia claiming to be the [[Paris of the East (disambiguation)|Paris of the East]]. Vietnam is also a member of the International Organisation of La Francophonie. Under the Nguyễn dynasty, Christianity became established as a minority religion for currently around 7% of the population. After the abdication of Emperor [[Abdication of Bảo Đại|Bảo Đại]] and the [[August Revolution]] that took place during the end of World War II, Vietnam would incorporate [[socialist]] and [[United States|American]] values as it underwent industrialization and economic development during and after the period of [[Reunification Day|political division]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Quynh Thi Nhu |title=The Vietnamese Values System: A Blend of Oriental, Western and Socialist Values |journal=International Education Studies |date=2016 |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=32–40 |doi=10.5539/ies.v9n12p32|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====West Asia====
{{Multiple image
| align = vertical
| width1 = 150
| image1 = HIH Prince Yorihito Higashifushimi.jpg
| caption1 = Another example of Westernization: Prince [[Prince Higashifushimi Yorihito|Yorihito Higashifushimi]] of [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] in typical Western naval dress [[uniform]] with white gloves, [[epaulette]]s, medals and hat.
| width2 = 193
| image2 = Gen John Bates.jpg
| caption2 = Similarity with U.S. [[General]] [[John C. Bates]]'s uniform.
|}}

=====Iran=====
In [[Iran]], the process of Westernization dates back to the country's attempt to westernize during the beginning of the 1930s, which was dictated by [[Rezā Shāh|Shah Rezā Khan]] and continued by [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|his son]] during the Cold War and agitated the largely conservative [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslim]] masses of the country which was partly responsible for the 1979 [[Iranian Revolution]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=del Giudice |first1=Marguerite |title=Persia: ancient soul of Iran |journal=National Geographic |date=2008 |volume=214 |issue=2 |pages=34–67 }}</ref>

=====Turkey=====
In [[Turkey]], the synchronization process with the West is known as the [[Tanzimat]] ''(reorganization)'' period. The [[Ottoman Empire]] began to change itself according to modern science, practice, and culture. The Empire took some innovations from the West. Also, with the contribution of foreign engineers, the Empire repaired its old arm systems. Newly-found schools, permanent ambassadors, and privy councils were an essential improvement for the Empire. As a result, Turkey is one of the most Westernized majority-Muslim nations.

===In Europe===
{{See also|Greater Europe}}

====Russia====
{{Excerpt|Westernizer|paragraphs=1-2}}

===Globalization (1970s–present)===
Westernization is often regarded as a part of the ongoing process of [[globalization]]. This theory proposes that Western thought has led to globalisation, and that globalisation propagates Western culture, leading to a cycle of Westernization. On top of largely Western government systems such as [[democracy]] and [[constitution]], many Western technologies and customs like music, clothing, and cars have been introduced across various parts of the world and copied and created in traditionally non-Western countries.

Westernization has been reversed in some countries following war or regime change. For example: [[Russia]] in aftermath of the [[Russian Revolution]] in 1917 and [[Iran]] by the [[Iranian Revolution]] in 1979.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Priborkin |first1=Emily |title=40 Years Later: Iran after the Islamic Revolution |url=https://www.american.edu/sis/news/20190408-40-years-later-iran-after-the-islamic-revolution.cfm |work=American University |date=8 April 2019 }}</ref>

The main characteristics are economic and political ([[free trade]]) democratisation, combined with the spread of an [[Individualism|individualised culture]]. Often it was regarded as opposite to the worldwide influence of [[communism]]. After the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|break-up]] of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] in late 1991 and the end of the [[Cold War]], many of its component states and allies nevertheless underwent Westernization, including [[privatization]] of hitherto state-controlled industry.<ref>{{cite web |title=Consequences of the Collapse of the Soviet Union |url=https://online.norwich.edu/online/about/resource-library/consequences-collapse-soviet-union |work=Norwich University }}</ref>

With debates still going on, the question of whether globalization can be characterized as Westernization can be seen in various aspects. Globalization is happening in various aspects, ranging from economics, politics, and even food or culture. Westernization, to some schools, is seen as a form of globalization that leads the world to be similar to Western powers. Being globalized means taking positive aspects of the world, but globalization also brings the debate about being Westernized. Democracy, fast food, and American pop culture can all be examples that are considered as Westernization of the world.

According to the "Theory of the Globe scrambled by Social network: a new Sphere of Influence 2.0", published by Jura Gentium ([[University of Florence]]), the increasing role of Westernization is characterized by [[social media]]. The comparison with Eastern societies, who decided to ban American social media platforms (such as Iran and China with Facebook and Twitter), marks a political desire to avoid the Westernization process of their own populations and ways to communicate.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peccia |first1=Tiziano |date=2014 |title=The Theory of the Globe Scrambled by Social Networks |url=https://www.juragentium.org/topics/wlgo/en/peccia.htm |website=Jura Gentium }}</ref>

==Consequences==
{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2021}}
=== Linguistic influence ===
{{See also|Englishisation}}

Due to colonization and immigration, the formerly prevalent languages in the Americas, Oceania, and part of [[South Africa]], are now usually Indo-European languages or creoles based on them:
*[[English Language|English]] ([[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[United States]], and [[Canada]] without mainly French-speaking [[Quebec]]); [[English language|English]] along with [[English-based creole languages]] ([[Anglophone|Anglophone Africa]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Dominica]], [[Federated States of Micronesia]], [[Fiji]], [[Grenada]], [[Guyana]], [[Hong Kong]], [[India]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kiribati]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Nauru]], [[Palau]], [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Philippines]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Samoa]], [[Singapore]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tonga]], [[Tuvalu]], and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]).
*[[French language|French]] ([[Quebec]], [[New Brunswick]] and parts of [[Ontario]] in Canada and [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]]); [[French language|French]] along with [[French-based creole languages]] ([[Francophone Africa]], [[French Guiana]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[Haiti]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Martinique]], and [[Saint-Barthelemy]]).
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]] ([[ the Americas]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Western Sahara]], and the [[Philippines]]).
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ([[Brazil]], [[Lusophone Africa]], [[East Timor]], [[Macau]], [[Goa]], and other members of the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]).
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]] along with [[Creole languages]] ([[Suriname]], [[Aruba]] and the [[Netherlands Antilles]]).
*[[Afrikaans]] along with English (parts of [[South Africa]] and [[Namibia]]).
*[[German language|German]] along with [[Creole languages]] (along with [[Afrikaans]] in [[Namibia]] and some areas in the US, such as [[Pennsylvania]] ([[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]]))

Many indigenous languages are on the verge of becoming extinct. Some settler countries have preserved indigenous languages; for example, in New Zealand, the [[Māori language]] is one of three official languages, the others being English and New Zealand sign language, another example is Ireland, where [[Irish language|Irish]] is the first official language, followed by English as the second official language.{{fact|date=October 2024}}

=== Sports importance in Westernization ===
{{See also|Western sports|Muscular Christianity}}

The importance of sports partly comes from its connection to Westernization. The insight by Edelman, R., & Wilson, W. (2017) explains “This new system of thought and practices imbued with positive values in the exertion and strategic deployment of the human body, embracing the Anglo-American notion that physical activity was meaningful in and of itself, conducive to values such as learning and character-building. Modern athletics and competitive sports, avatars of this new body culture, elicited largely willing local receptions in North Asia, though there were no doubt isolated cases of coercive foisting better characterized as cultural imperialism.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edelman |first1=Robert |last2=Wilson |first2=Wayne |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sports History |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-985892-7 |page=273 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|small=yes}}

* {{Annotated link |Acculturation}}
* {{Annotated link |Anti-globalization|Anti-globalisation}}
* {{Annotated link |Christianization}}
* {{Annotated link |Colonial mentality}}
* {{Annotated link |Colonialism}}
* {{Annotated link |Colonisation}}
* {{Annotated link |Cultural assimilation}}
* {{Annotated link |Cultural diversity}}
* {{Annotated link |Cultural imperialism}}
* {{Annotated link |The Culture of Nakedness and the Nakedness of Culture|''The Culture of Nakedness and the Nakedness of Culture''}}
* {{Annotated link |Democratization|Democratisation}}
* {{Annotated link |East-West Cultural Debate}}
* {{Annotated link |Global citizenship}}
* {{Annotated link |Globalization|Globalisation}}
* {{Annotated link |Indigenization}}
* {{Annotated link |McDonaldization}}
* {{Annotated link |Melting pot}}
* {{Annotated link |Modern culture}}
* {{Annotated link |Modernization}}
* {{Annotated link |Multiculturalism}}
* {{Annotated link |Pop culture}}
* {{Annotated link |Post-Westernization}}
* {{Annotated link |Western education}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* '{{cite book |last = Bonnett  |first= Alastair  |year = 2004 |title = The Idea of the West: Culture, Politics, and History  |publisher = Palgrave Macmillan| location = Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York |isbn = 978-1-4039-0034-0 }}
* ''[[The Limits of Westernization: American and East Asian Intellectuals Create Modernity, 1860-1960]]'' (2019) [[Routledge]], written by [[Jon Thares Davidann]]
* ''[[The Decline of the West]]'' (1918), written by [[Oswald Spengler]].
* ''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]'' (1992), written by [[Francis Fukuyama]].
* ''[[The Clash of Civilizations]]'' (1996), written by [[Samuel P. Huntington]].
* ''The Triumph of the West'' (1985) written by [[Oxford University]] historian [[John Roberts (historian)|J.M. Roberts]].
*{{cite book|last= Ankerl |first= Guy |title= Global communication without universal civilization |year= 2000 |series= INU societal research |volume= 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |publisher= INU Press |location= Geneva |isbn= 978-2-88155-004-1}}
* {{cite book | last=Watters | first=Ethan | title=Crazy like us | publication-place=London | date=2011 | isbn=978-1-84901-577-6 | oclc=751584971}}
* Gardels, Nathan (1997) 'Clash of civilizations: modernization without Westernization', The National Times, May/June: 8-10.
{{Western culture}}
{{Cultural assimilation}}
{{Globalization|state=autocollapse}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Westernization|*]]
[[Category:Global culture]]
[[Category:Cultural assimilation]]
[[Category:Cultural geography]]
[[Category:Imperialism]]