Editing William the Conqueror

{{Short description|King of England (1066–1087) and Duke of Normandy (1035–1087)}}
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{{Infobox royalty
| image        = William the Conqueror (TFA).jpg
| caption      = William is depicted in the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] during the [[Battle of Hastings]], lifting his helmet to show that he is still alive.
| succession   = [[King of England]]
| reign        = 25 December 1066 – 9 September 1087
| coronation   = 25 December 1066
| cor-type     = [[Coronations of William the Conqueror and Matilda|Coronation]]
| predecessor  = {{plainlist|
* [[Edgar Ætheling]] (uncrowned)
* [[Harold II]] (crowned)}}
| successor    = [[William II of England|William II]]
| succession1  = [[Duke of Normandy]]
| reign1       = 3 July 1035 – 9 September 1087
| predecessor1 = [[Robert I, Duke of Normandy|Robert I]]
| successor1   = [[Robert Curthose|Robert II]]
| spouse       = [[Matilda of Flanders]] {{awrap|({{married-in|1051/2}}; {{died-in|1083}})}}
| issue        = {{plainlist|
* [[Robert II, Duke of Normandy]]
* [[Richard (son of William the Conqueror)|Richard]]
* [[Adeliza]]
* [[Cecilia of Normandy|Cecilia]]
* [[William II, King of England]]
* [[Constance of Normandy|Constance, Duchess of Brittany]]
* [[Adela, Countess of Blois]]
* [[Henry I, King of England]]}}
| issue-link   = #Family and children
| house        = [[House of Normandy|Normandy]]
| father       = [[Robert the Magnificent]]
| mother       = [[Herleva of Falaise]]
| birth_date   = {{circa|1028|lk=yes}}<ref name=Bates33/>
| birth_place  = [[Falaise, Calvados|Falaise]], [[Duchy of Normandy]]<!--, Kingdom of France-->
| death_date   = 9 September 1087 {{awrap|(aged about 59)}}
| death_place  = Priory of Saint Gervase, [[Rouen]], Duchy of Normandy
| burial_place = [[Saint-Étienne de Caen]], Normandy
}}
'''William the Conqueror'''{{efn|{{langx|fr|Guillaume}}; {{langx|la|Guillelmus}}; {{langx|nrf|Williame|label=[[Old Norman]]}}; {{langx|ang|Willelm}}}} ({{circa|1028|lk=yes}}<ref name=Bates33>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 33</ref>{{nbsp}}– 9 September 1087), sometimes called '''William the Bastard''',<ref name=DNB />{{efn|He was regularly described as {{lang|la|bastardus}} (bastard) in non-Norman contemporary sources.<ref name=DNB/>}} was the first [[Norman king of England]] (as '''William I'''), reigning from 1066 until his death. A descendant of [[Rollo]], he was [[Duke of Normandy]] (as '''William II''')<ref>Potts "Normandy, 911–1144" p. 31</ref> from 1035 onward. By 1060, following a long struggle, his hold on [[Normandy]] was secure. In 1066, following the death of [[Edward the Confessor]], William invaded England, leading a Franco-Norman army to victory over the [[Anglo-Saxon]] forces of [[Harold Godwinson]] at the [[Battle of Hastings]], and suppressed subsequent English revolts in what has become known as the [[Norman Conquest]]. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands, and by difficulties with his eldest son, [[Robert Curthose]].

William was the son of the unmarried Duke [[Robert I of Normandy]] and his mistress [[Herleva]]. His [[Legitimacy (family law)|illegitimate status]] and youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father, as did the anarchy which plagued the first years of his rule. During his childhood and adolescence, members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other, both for control of the child duke, and for their own ends. In 1047, William quashed a rebellion and began to establish his authority over [[Duchy of Normandy|the duchy]], a process that was not complete until about 1060. His marriage in the 1050s to [[Matilda of Flanders]] provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring [[county of Flanders]]. By the time of his marriage, William was able to arrange the appointment of his supporters as bishops and abbots in the Norman church. His consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons, and he secured control of the neighbouring county of [[Maine (province)|Maine]] by 1062.

In the 1050s and early 1060s, William became a contender for the throne of England held by the childless Edward the Confessor, his first cousin once removed. There were other potential claimants, including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson, whom Edward named as king on his deathbed in January 1066. Arguing that Edward had previously promised the throne to him and that Harold had sworn to support his claim, William built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066. He decisively defeated and killed Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. After further military efforts, William was [[Coronations of William the Conqueror and Matilda|crowned king on Christmas Day, 1066]], in London. He made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy. Several unsuccessful rebellions followed, but William's hold on England was mostly secure by 1075, allowing him to spend the greater part of his reign in [[continental Europe]].

William's final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his son, Robert, and threatened invasions of England by the [[Danish attacks on Norman England|Danes]]. In 1086, he ordered the compilation of the ''[[Domesday Book]]'', a survey listing all of the land-holdings in England along with their pre-Conquest and current holders. He died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France, and was buried in [[Caen]]. His reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, settling a new Norman nobility on the land, and change in the composition of the English clergy. He did not try to integrate his domains into one empire but continued to administer each part separately. His lands were divided after his death: Normandy went to Robert, and England went to his second surviving son, [[William Rufus]].

== Background ==

[[Norsemen]] first began raiding in what became [[Normandy]] in the late 8th century. Permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred before 911, when [[Rollo]], one of the Viking leaders, and King [[Charles the Simple]] of France reached an agreement ceding the [[county of Rouen]] to Rollo. The lands around Rouen became the core of the later duchy of Normandy.<ref name=Collins376>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 376–377</ref> Normandy may have been used as a base when Scandinavian attacks on England were renewed at the end of the 10th century, which would have worsened relations between England and Normandy.<ref name=Williams42>Williams ''Æthelred the Unready'' pp. 42–43</ref> In an effort to improve matters, King [[Æthelred the Unready]] took [[Emma of Normandy|Emma]], sister of [[Richard II, Duke of Normandy]], as his second wife in 1002.<ref name=Williams54>Williams ''Æthelred the Unready'' pp. 54–55</ref>

Danish raids on England continued, and Æthelred sought help from Richard, taking refuge in Normandy in 1013 when King [[Swein I of Denmark]] drove Æthelred and his family from England. Swein's death in 1014 allowed Æthelred to return home, but Swein's son [[Cnut]] contested Æthelred's return. Æthelred died unexpectedly in 1016, and Cnut became king of England. Æthelred and Emma's two sons, [[Edward the Confessor|Edward]] and [[Alfred Aetheling|Alfred]], went into exile in Normandy while their mother, Emma, became Cnut's second wife.<ref name=Conquest80>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 80–83</ref>

After Cnut's death in 1035, the English throne fell to [[Harold Harefoot]], his son by his first wife, while [[Harthacnut]], his son by Emma, became king in Denmark. England remained unstable. Alfred returned to England in 1036 to visit his mother and perhaps to challenge Harold as king. One story implicates Earl [[Godwin of Wessex]] in Alfred's subsequent death, but others blame Harold. Emma went into exile in [[County of Flanders|Flanders]] until Harthacnut became king following Harold's death in 1040, and his half-brother Edward followed Harthacnut to England; Edward was proclaimed king after Harthacnut's death in June 1042.<ref name=Conquest83>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 83–85</ref>{{efn|Although the chronicler William of Poitiers claimed that Edward's succession was due to Duke William's efforts, this is highly unlikely, as William was at that time practically powerless in his own duchy.<ref name=DNB/>}}

== Early life ==
[[File:Falaise Chateau Guillaume Conquerant 1.jpg|thumb|[[Château de Falaise]] in [[Falaise, Calvados|Falaise]], Lower Normandy, France; William was born in an earlier building here.]]

William was born in 1027 or 1028 at [[Falaise, Calvados|Falaise]], Duchy of Normandy, most likely towards the end of 1028.<ref name=Bates33/><ref name=Official>"[https://www.royal.uk/william-the-conqueror William the Conqueror]" ''Royal Family''</ref>{{efn|The exact date of William's birth is confused by contradictory statements by the Norman chroniclers. [[Orderic Vitalis]] has William on his deathbed claim that he was 64 years old, which would place his birth around 1023. But elsewhere, Orderic states that William was 8 years old when his father left for Jerusalem in 1035, placing the year of birth in 1027. [[William of Malmesbury]] gives an age of 7 for William when his father left, giving 1028. Another source, ''[[De obitu Willelmi]]'', states that William was 59 years old when he died in 1087, allowing for either 1027 or 1028.<ref name=Douglas379>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 379–382</ref>}} He was the only son of [[Robert I, Duke of Normandy|Robert I]], son of Richard II.{{efn|This made Emma of Normandy his great-aunt and Edward the Confessor his cousin.<ref name=Douglas417>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 417</ref><ref name=Douglas420>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 420</ref>}} His mother, [[Herleva]], was a daughter of [[Fulbert of Falaise]], who may have been a tanner or embalmer.<ref name=Douglas379 /> Herleva was possibly a member of the ducal household, but did not marry Robert.<ref name=DNB/> She later married [[Herluin de Conteville]], with whom she had two sons&nbsp;– [[Odo of Bayeux]] and Count [[Robert of Mortain]]&nbsp;– and a daughter whose name is unknown.{{efn|This daughter later married William, lord of [[La Ferté-Macé]].<ref name=Douglas379/>}} One of Herleva's brothers, Walter, became a supporter and protector of William during his minority.<ref name=Douglas379/>{{efn|Walter had two daughters. One became a nun, and the other, Matilda, married [[Ralph Tesson]].<ref name=Douglas379/>}} Robert I also had a daughter, [[Adelaide of Normandy|Adelaide]], by another mistress.<ref name=Houts19>van Houts "Les femmes" ''Tabularia "Études"'' pp. 19–34</ref>

Robert I succeeded his elder brother [[Richard III, Duke of Normandy|Richard III]] as duke on 6 August 1027.<ref name=Bates33/> The brothers had been at odds over the succession, and Richard's death was sudden. Robert was accused by some writers of killing Richard, a plausible but now unprovable charge.<ref name=Douglas31>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 31–32</ref> Conditions in Normandy were unsettled, as noble families despoiled the Church and [[Alan III of Brittany]] waged war against the duchy, possibly in an attempt to take control. By 1031 Robert had gathered considerable support from noblemen many of whom would become prominent during William's life. They included the duke's uncle [[Robert II (archbishop of Rouen)|Robert]], the [[archbishop of Rouen]], who had originally opposed the duke; [[Osbern the Steward|Osbern]], a nephew of [[Gunnor]] the wife of [[Richard I, Duke of Normandy|Richard I]]; and [[Gilbert of Brionne]], a grandson of Richard I.<ref name=Douglas32>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 32–34, 145</ref> After his accession, Robert continued Norman support for the English princes Edward and Alfred, who were still in exile in northern France.<ref name=DNB/>

Robert may have been briefly betrothed to a daughter of King Cnut, but no marriage took place. It is unclear whether William would have been supplanted in the ducal succession if Robert had had a legitimate son. Earlier dukes had been [[illegitimate]], and William's association with his father on ducal charters appears to indicate that William was considered Robert's most likely heir.<ref name=DNB/> In 1034 the duke decided to go on [[pilgrimage]] to [[Jerusalem]]. Although some of his supporters tried to dissuade him, he convened a council in January 1035 and had the assembled Norman magnates swear [[fealty]] to William as his heir<ref name=DNB/><ref name=Douglas35/> before leaving for Jerusalem. He died in early July at [[Nicea]], on his way back to Normandy.<ref name=Douglas35>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 35–37</ref>

== Duke of Normandy ==

=== Challenges ===
[[File:Tree of William I struggle for Normandy.svg|thumb|upright=3.4|Diagram showing William's family relationships. Names with "---" under them were opponents of William, and names with "+++" were supporters of William. Some relatives switched sides over time, and are marked with both symbols.|center]]
William faced several challenges on becoming duke, including his illegitimate birth and his youth: he was either seven or eight years old.<ref name=Bates36>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 36</ref><ref name=Douglas37>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 37</ref>{{efn|How illegitimacy was viewed by the church and lay society was undergoing a change during this period. The Church, under the influence of the [[Gregorian reform]], held the view that the sin of extramarital sex tainted any offspring that resulted, but nobles had not totally embraced the Church's viewpoint during William's lifetime.<ref name=Crouch132>Crouch ''Birth of Nobility'' pp. 132–133</ref> By 1135 the illegitimate birth of [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester|Robert of Gloucester]], son of William's son [[Henry I of England]], was enough to bar Robert's succession as king when Henry died without legitimate male heirs, even though he had some support from the English nobility.<ref name=Bastards42>Given-Wilson and Curteis ''Royal Bastards'' p. 42</ref>}} He enjoyed the support of his great-uncle, Archbishop Robert, as well as King [[Henry I of France]], enabling him to succeed to his father's duchy.<ref name=Douglas38 /> The support given to the exiled English princes in their attempt to return to England in 1036 shows that the new duke's guardians were attempting to continue his father's policies,<ref name=DNB/> but Archbishop Robert's death in March 1037 removed one of William's main supporters, and Normandy quickly descended into chaos.<ref name=Douglas38>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 38–39</ref>

The anarchy in the duchy lasted until 1047,<ref name=Douglas51>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 51</ref> and control of the young duke was one of the priorities of those contending for power. At first, Alan of Brittany had custody of the duke, but when Alan died in either late 1039 or October 1040, Gilbert of Brionne took charge of William. Gilbert was killed within months, and another guardian, Turchetil, was also killed around the time of Gilbert's death.<ref name=Douglas40>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 40</ref> Yet another guardian, Osbern, was slain in the early 1040s in William's chamber while the duke slept. It was said that Walter, William's maternal uncle, was occasionally forced to hide the young duke in the houses of peasants,<ref name=Bates37>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 37</ref> although this story may be an embellishment by [[Orderic Vitalis]]. The historian Eleanor Searle speculates that William was raised with the three cousins who later became important in his career&nbsp;– [[William fitzOsbern]], [[Roger de Beaumont]], and [[Roger of Montgomery]].<ref name=Searle196>Searle ''Predatory Kinship'' pp. 196–198</ref> Although many of the Norman nobles engaged in their own private wars and feuds during William's minority, the viscounts still acknowledged the ducal government, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy was supportive of William.<ref name=Douglas42>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 42–43</ref>

[[File:Colonne Vimont.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Column at the site of the [[Battle of Val-ès-Dunes]] in 1047]]

King Henry continued to support the young duke,<ref name=Douglas45>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 45–46</ref> but in late 1046 opponents of William came together in a rebellion centred in lower Normandy, led by [[Guy of Burgundy]] with support from Nigel, Viscount of the Cotentin, and Ranulf, Viscount of the Bessin. According to stories that may have legendary elements, an attempt was made to seize William at Valognes, but he escaped under cover of darkness, seeking refuge with King Henry.<ref name=Douglas47>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 47–49</ref> In early 1047 Henry and William returned to Normandy and were victorious at the [[Battle of Val-ès-Dunes]] near [[Caen]], although few details of the fighting are recorded.<ref name=Bates38>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 38</ref> William of Poitiers claimed that the battle was won mainly through William's efforts, but earlier accounts claim that King Henry's men and leadership also played an important part.<ref name=DNB/> William assumed power in Normandy, and shortly after the battle promulgated the [[Peace and Truce of God#Truce of God|Truce of God]] throughout his duchy, in an effort to limit warfare and violence by restricting the days of the year on which fighting was permitted.<ref name=Bates40>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 40</ref> Although the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes marked a turning point in William's control of the duchy, it was not the end of his struggle to gain the upper hand over the nobility. The period from 1047 to 1054 saw almost continuous warfare, with lesser crises continuing until 1060.<ref name=Douglas53>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 53</ref>

=== Consolidation of power ===

William's next efforts were against Guy of Burgundy, who retreated to his castle at [[Brionne]], which William besieged. After a long effort, the duke succeeded in exiling Guy in 1050.<ref name=Douglas54>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 54–55</ref> To address the growing power of the Count of [[County of Anjou|Anjou]], [[Geoffrey Martel]],<ref name=Douglas56/> William joined with King Henry in a campaign against him, the last known cooperation between the two. They succeeded in capturing an Angevin fortress but accomplished little else.<ref name=Bates43>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 43–44</ref> Geoffrey attempted to expand his authority into the county of [[Maine (province)|Maine]], especially after the death of [[Hugh IV of Maine]] in 1051. Central to the control of Maine were the holdings of the [[House of Bellême|Bellême family]], who held [[Bellême]] on the border of Maine and Normandy, as well as the fortresses at [[Alençon]] and [[Domfront, Orne|Domfront]]. Bellême's overlord was the king of France, but Domfront was under the overlordship of Geoffrey Martel and Duke William was Alençon's overlord. The Bellême family, whose lands were quite strategically placed between their three different overlords, were able to play each of them against the other and secure virtual independence for themselves.<ref name=Douglas56>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 56–58</ref>

[[File:Bayeuxtapestryodowilliamrobert.jpg|thumb|Image from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] showing William with his half-brothers. William is in the centre, Odo is on the left with empty hands, and Robert is on the right with a sword in his hand.]]

On the death of Hugh of Maine, Geoffrey Martel occupied Maine in a move contested by William and King Henry; eventually, they succeeded in driving Geoffrey from the county, and in the process, William secured the Bellême family strongholds at Alençon and Domfront for himself. He was thus able to assert his overlordship over the Bellême family and compel them to act consistently with Norman interests.<ref name=Douglas59>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 59–60</ref> However, in 1052 the king and Geoffrey Martel made common cause against William as some Norman nobles began to contest William's increasing power. Henry's about-face was probably motivated by a desire to retain dominance over Normandy, which was now threatened by William's growing mastery of his duchy.<ref name=Douglas63>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 63–64</ref> William was engaged in military actions against his own nobles throughout 1053,<ref name=Douglas66>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 66–67</ref> as well as with the new Archbishop of Rouen, [[Mauger (archbishop of Rouen)|Mauger]].<ref name=Douglas64>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 64</ref>

In February 1054 the king and the Norman rebels launched a double invasion of the duchy. Henry led the main thrust through the [[county of Évreux]], while the other wing, under the king's half-brother Odo, invaded eastern Normandy.<ref name=Douglas67>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 67</ref> William met the invasion by dividing his forces into two. The first, which he led, faced Henry. The second, which included some who became William's firm supporters, such as [[Robert, Count of Eu]], [[Walter Giffard, Lord of Longueville|Walter Giffard]], [[Roger of Mortemer]], and [[William de Warenne, 1st Earl of Surrey|William de Warenne]], faced the other invading force. This second force defeated the invaders at the [[Battle of Mortemer]]. In addition to ending both invasions, the battle allowed the duke's ecclesiastical supporters to depose Archbishop Mauger. Mortemer thus marked another turning point in William's growing control of the duchy,<ref name=Douglas68>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 68–69</ref> although his conflict with the French king and the Count of Anjou continued until 1060.<ref name=Douglas75>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 75–76</ref> Henry and Geoffrey led another invasion of Normandy in 1057 but were defeated by William at the [[Battle of Varaville]]. This was the last invasion of Normandy during William's lifetime. In 1058, William invaded the [[County of Dreux]] and took [[Tillières-sur-Avre]] and [[Thimert]]. Henry attempted to dislodge William, but the [[siege of Thimert]] dragged on for two years until Henry's death. The deaths of Count Geoffrey and the king in 1060 cemented the shift in the balance of power towards William.<ref name=Bates50>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 50</ref>

[[File:Acrdwnch.jpg|thumb|left|The signatures of William I and Matilda are the first two large crosses on the [[Accord of Winchester]] from 1072.]]

One factor in William's favour was his marriage to [[Matilda of Flanders]], the daughter of Count [[Baldwin V of Flanders]]. The union was arranged in 1049, but [[Pope Leo IX]] forbade the marriage at the [[Council of Rheims]] in October 1049.{{efn|The reasons for the prohibition are not clear. There is no record of the reason from the Council, and the main evidence is from Orderic Vitalis. He hinted obliquely that William and Matilda were [[Affinity (Catholic canon law)|too closely related]], but gave no details, hence the matter remains obscure.<ref name=Douglas391->Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 391–393</ref>}} The marriage nevertheless went ahead in the early 1050s,<ref name=Douglas76>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 76</ref>{{efn|The exact date of the marriage is unknown, but it was probably in 1051 or 1052, and certainly before the end of 1053, as Matilda is named as William's wife in a [[charter]] dated in the later part of that year.<ref name=Douglas391>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 391</ref>}} possibly unsanctioned by the pope. According to a late source not generally considered to be reliable, papal sanction was not secured until 1059, but as papal-Norman relations in the 1050s were generally good, and Norman clergy were able to visit Rome in 1050 without incident, it was probably secured earlier.<ref name=Bates44>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 44–45</ref> Papal sanction of the marriage appears to have required the founding of two monasteries in Caen&nbsp;– one by William and one by Matilda.<ref name=Douglas80>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 80</ref>{{efn|The two monasteries are the [[Abbaye-aux-Hommes]] (or St Étienne) for men which was founded by William in about 1059, and the [[Abbaye aux Dames]] (or Sainte Trinité) for women which was founded by Matilda around four years later.<ref name=Bates66>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 66–67</ref>}} The marriage was important in bolstering William's status, as Flanders was one of the more powerful French territories, with ties to the French royal house and to the German emperors.<ref name=Bates44/> Contemporary writers considered the marriage, which produced four sons and five or six daughters, to be a success.<ref name=Douglas393/>

=== Appearance and character ===
No authentic portrait of William has been found; the contemporary depictions of him on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] and on his seals and coins are conventional representations designed to assert his authority.<ref name=Bates115>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 115–116</ref> There are some written descriptions of a burly and robust appearance, with a guttural voice. He enjoyed excellent health until old age, although he became quite fat in later life.<ref name=Douglas368>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 368–369</ref> He was strong enough to draw bows that others were unable to pull and had great stamina.<ref name=Bates115/> Geoffrey Martel described him as without equal as a fighter and horseman.<ref name=Searle203>Searle ''Predatory Kinship'' p. 203</ref> Examination of William's [[femur]], the only bone to survive when the rest of his remains were destroyed, showed he was approximately {{convert|5|ft|10|in|m}} tall.<ref name=Bates115/>

There are records of two tutors for William during the late 1030s and early 1040s, but the extent of his literary education is unclear. He was not known as a patron of authors, and there is little evidence that he sponsored scholarships or intellectual activities.<ref name=DNB/> Orderic Vitalis records that William tried to learn to read [[Old English]] late in life, but he was unable to devote sufficient time to the effort and quickly gave up.<ref name=Huscroft323>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 323</ref> William's main hobby appears to have been hunting. His marriage to Matilda appears to have been quite affectionate, and there are no signs that he was unfaithful to her&nbsp;– unusual in a medieval monarch. Medieval writers criticised William for his greed and cruelty, but his personal piety was universally praised by contemporaries.<ref name=DNB/>

=== Norman administration ===

Norman government under William was similar to the government that had existed under earlier dukes. It was a fairly simple administrative system, built around the ducal household,<ref name=Bates133>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 133</ref> a group of officers including [[Steward (office)|stewards]], [[butler]]s, and [[marshal]]s.<ref name=Bates23>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 23–24</ref> The duke travelled constantly around the duchy, confirming [[charter]]s and collecting revenues.<ref name=Bates63>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 63–65</ref> Most of the income came from the ducal lands, as well as from tolls and a few taxes. This income was collected by the chamber, one of the household departments.<ref name=Bates23/>

William cultivated close relations with the church in his duchy. He took part in church councils and made several appointments to the Norman episcopate, including the appointment of [[Maurilius]] as Archbishop of Rouen.<ref name=Bates64/> Another important appointment was that of William's half-brother, Odo, as [[Bishop of Bayeux]] in 1049 or 1050.<ref name=DNB/> He also relied on the clergy for advice, including [[Lanfranc]], a non-Norman who rose to become one of William's prominent ecclesiastical advisors from the late 1040s through the 1060s. William gave generously to the church;<ref name=Bates64>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 64–66</ref> from 1035 to 1066, the Norman aristocracy founded at least twenty new monastic houses, including William's two monasteries in Caen, a remarkable expansion of religious life in the duchy.<ref name=Douglas111>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 111–112</ref>

== English and continental concerns ==

In 1051 the childless King Edward of England appears to have chosen William as his successor.<ref name=Barlow>Barlow "Edward" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref> William was the grandson of Edward's maternal uncle, Richard II of Normandy.<ref name=Barlow />

[[File:Tree of William's struggle for England.svg|thumb|upright=3.4|Family relationships of the claimants to the English throne in 1066, and others involved in the struggle. Kings of England are shown in '''bold'''.|center]]

The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'', in the "D" version, states that William visited England in the later part of 1051, perhaps to secure confirmation of the succession,<ref name=Bates46/> or perhaps to secure aid for his troubles in Normandy.<ref name=Huscroft93/> The trip is unlikely given William's absorption in warfare with Anjou at the time. Whatever Edward's wishes, it was likely that any claim by William would be opposed by [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex]], a member of the most powerful family in England.<ref name=Bates46>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 46–47</ref> Edward had married [[Edith of Wessex|Edith]], Godwin's daughter, in 1043, and Godwin appears to have been one of the main supporters of Edward's claim to the throne.<ref name=Huscroft86>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 86–87</ref> By 1050, however, relations between the king and the earl had soured, culminating in a crisis in 1051 that led to the exile of Godwin and his family from England. During this exile, Edward offered the throne to William.<ref name=Huscroft89>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 89–91</ref> Godwin returned from exile in 1052 with armed forces, and a settlement was reached between the king and the earl, restoring the earl and his family to their lands and replacing [[Robert of Jumièges]], a Norman whom Edward had named [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], with [[Stigand]], the [[Bishop of Winchester]].<ref name=Huscroft95>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 95–96</ref> No English source mentions a supposed embassy by Archbishop Robert to William conveying the promise of the succession, and the two Norman sources that mention it, [[William of Jumièges]] and [[William of Poitiers]], are not precise in their chronology of when this visit took place.<ref name=Huscroft93>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 93–95</ref>

Count [[Herbert II of Maine]] died in 1062, and William, who had betrothed his eldest son [[Robert Curthose|Robert]] to Herbert's sister Margaret, claimed the county through his son. Local nobles resisted the claim, but William invaded and by 1064 had secured control of the area.<ref name=Douglas174>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 174</ref> William appointed a Norman to the [[bishopric of Le Mans]] in 1065. He also allowed his son Robert Curthose to do homage to the new Count of Anjou, [[Geoffrey the Bearded]].<ref name=Bates53>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 53</ref> William's western border was thus secured, but his border with [[Duchy of Brittany|Brittany]] remained insecure. In 1064 William invaded Brittany in a campaign that remains obscure in its details. Its effect, though, was to destabilise Brittany, forcing the duke, [[Conan II, Duke of Brittany|Conan II]], to focus on internal problems rather than on expansion. Conan's death in 1066 further secured William's borders in Normandy. William also benefited from his campaign in Brittany by securing the support of some Breton nobles who went on to support the invasion of England in 1066.<ref name=Douglas178>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 178–179</ref>

[[File:Bayeuxtapestrywilliamgivesharoldarms.jpg|upright|thumb|Scene from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] whose text indicates William supplying weapons to Harold during Harold's trip to the continent in 1064]]

Earl Godwin died in 1053. [[Harold Godwinson|Harold]] succeeded to his father's earldom, and another son, [[Tostig]], became [[Earl of Northumbria]]. Other sons were granted earldoms later: [[Gyrth]] as [[Earl of East Anglia]] in 1057 and [[Leofwine Godwinson|Leofwine]] as [[Earl of Kent]] sometime between 1055 and 1057.<ref name=Huscroft98>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 98–100</ref> Some sources claim that Harold took part in William's Breton campaign of 1064 and swore to uphold William's claim to the English throne,<ref name=Bates53/> but no English source reports this trip, and it is unclear if it actually occurred. It may have been Norman propaganda designed to discredit Harold, who had emerged as the main contender to succeed King Edward.<ref name=Huscroft102>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 102–103</ref> Meanwhile, another contender for the throne had emerged&nbsp;– [[Edward the Exile]], son of [[Edmund Ironside]] and a grandson of Æthelred II, returned to England in 1057. Although he died shortly after his return, he brought with him his family, which included two daughters, [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]] and [[Cristina, daughter of Edward the Exile|Christina]], and a son, [[Edgar the Ætheling]].<ref name=Huscroft97>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 97</ref>{{efn|Ætheling means "prince of the royal house" and usually denoted a son or brother of a ruling king.<ref name=BASEAetheling>Miller "Ætheling" ''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 13–14</ref>}}

In 1065 [[Northumbrian Revolt of 1065|Northumbria revolted against Tostig]], and the rebels chose [[Morcar]], the younger brother of [[Edwin, Earl of Mercia]], as earl. Harold, perhaps to secure the support of Edwin and Morcar in his bid for the throne, supported the rebels and persuaded King Edward to replace Tostig with Morcar. Tostig went into exile in Flanders with his wife [[Judith of Flanders, Countess of Northumbria|Judith]], who was the daughter of [[Baldwin IV, Count of Flanders]]. Edward was ailing, and he died on 5 January 1066. It is unclear what exactly happened at Edward's deathbed. One story, deriving from the ''[[Vita Ædwardi Regis|Vita Ædwardi]]'', a biography of Edward, claims that he was attended by his wife Edith, Harold, Archbishop Stigand, and [[Robert FitzWimarc]], and that the king named Harold as his successor. The Norman sources do not dispute that Harold was named as the next king, but they declare that Harold's oath and Edward's earlier promise of the throne could not be changed on Edward's deathbed. Later English sources stated that Harold had been elected as king by the clergy and magnates of England.<ref name=Huscroft107>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 107–109</ref>

== Invasion of England ==
{{Main|Norman conquest of England}}

=== Harold's preparations ===
[[File:Norman-conquest-1066.svg|thumb|Locations of some of the events in 1066]]

Harold was crowned on 6 January 1066 in Edward's new [[Norman architecture|Norman-style]] [[Westminster Abbey]], although some controversy surrounds who performed the ceremony. English sources claim that [[Ealdred (bishop)|Ealdred]], the [[Archbishop of York]], performed the ceremony, while Norman sources state that the coronation was performed by Stigand, who was considered a non-canonical archbishop by the papacy.<ref name=Huscroft115>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 115–116</ref> Harold's claim to the throne was not entirely secure, as there were other claimants, perhaps including his exiled brother Tostig.<ref name=Ruling12>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' pp. 12–13</ref>{{efn|Edgar the Ætheling was another claimant,<ref name=Bates78>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 78</ref> but Edgar was young,<ref name=Thomas18>Thomas ''Norman Conquest'' p. 18</ref> likely only 14 in 1066.<ref name=Conquest132>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 132</ref>}} King [[Harald Hardrada]] of Norway also had a claim to the throne as the uncle and heir of King [[Magnus I of Norway|Magnus I]], who had made a pact with Harthacnut around 1040 that if either Magnus or Harthacnut died without heirs, the other would succeed.<ref name=Huscroft118/> The last claimant was William of Normandy, against whose anticipated invasion King Harold Godwinson made most of his preparations.<ref name=Ruling12/>

Harold's brother Tostig made probing attacks along the southern coast of England in May 1066, landing at the [[Isle of Wight]] using a fleet supplied by Baldwin of Flanders. Tostig appears to have received little local support, and further raids into [[Lincolnshire]] and near the [[Humber]] met with no more success, so he retreated to Scotland. According to the Norman writer William of Jumièges, William had meanwhile sent an embassy to King Harold Godwinson to remind Harold of his oath to support William's claim, although whether this embassy actually occurred is unclear. Harold assembled an army and a fleet to repel William's anticipated invasion force, deploying troops and ships along the [[English Channel]] for most of the summer.<ref name=Ruling12/>

=== William's preparations ===
[[File:BayeuxTapestryScene37.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.8|Scene from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] showing the Normans provisioning armour and wine for the invasion of England]]

William of Poitiers describes a council called by Duke William, in which the writer gives an account of a debate between William's nobles and supporters over whether to risk an invasion of England. Although some sort of formal assembly probably was held, it is unlikely that any debate took place: the duke had by then established control over his nobles, and most of those assembled would have been anxious to secure their share of the rewards from the conquest of England.<ref name=Bates79>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 79–81</ref> William of Poitiers also relates that the duke obtained the consent of [[Pope Alexander II]] for the invasion, along with a papal banner. The chronicler also claimed that the duke secured the support of [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]], and King [[Sweyn II of Denmark]]. Henry was still a minor, however, and Sweyn was more likely to support Harold, who could then help Sweyn against the Norwegian king, so these claims should be treated with caution. Although Alexander gave papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, no other source claims papal support prior to the invasion.{{efn|The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] may depict a papal banner carried by William's forces, but this is not named as such in the tapestry.<ref name=Huscroft120/>}}<ref name=Huscroft120>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 120–123</ref> Events after the invasion, which included the penance William performed and statements by later popes, lend circumstantial support to the claim of papal approval. To deal with Norman affairs, William put the government of Normandy into the hands of his wife for the duration of the invasion.<ref name=DNB/>

[[File:Þæt ƿyllelm bastard wolde hider.jpg|left|thumb|The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records fear 'That William the Bastard would come hither']]
Throughout the summer, William assembled an army and an invasion fleet in Normandy. Although William of Jumièges's claim that the ducal fleet numbered 3,000 ships is clearly an exaggeration, it was probably large and mostly built from scratch. Although William of Poitiers and William of Jumièges disagree about where the fleet was built&nbsp;– Poitiers states it was constructed at the mouth of the [[River Dives]], while Jumièges states it was built at [[Saint-Valery-sur-Somme]]&nbsp;– both agree that it eventually sailed from Valery-sur-Somme. The fleet carried an invasion force that included, in addition to troops from William's territories of Normandy and Maine, large numbers of mercenaries, allies, and volunteers from [[Brittany]], northeastern France, and Flanders, together with smaller numbers from other parts of Europe. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September. There were probably other reasons for William's delay, including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold's forces were deployed along the coast. William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing.<ref name=Huscroft120/> Harold kept his forces on alert throughout the summer, but with the arrival of the harvest season he disbanded his army on 8 September.<ref name=Carpenter72>Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' p. 72</ref>

=== Tostig and Hardrada's invasion ===
[[File:Battle Flat - geograph.org.uk - 285158.jpg|thumb|Modern site of the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]] in the [[East Riding of Yorkshire]]]]

Tostig Godwinson and Harald Hardrada invaded [[Northumbria]] in September 1066 and defeated the local forces under Morcar and Edwin at the [[Battle of Fulford]] near [[York]]. King Harold received word of their invasion and marched north, defeating the invaders and killing Tostig and Hardrada on 25 September at the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]].<ref name=Huscroft118>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 118–119</ref> The Norman fleet finally set sail two days later, landing in England at [[Pevensey Bay]] on 28 September. William then moved to [[Hastings]], a few miles to the east, where he built a castle as a base of operations. From there, he ravaged the interior and waited for Harold's return from the north, refusing to venture far from the sea, his line of communication with Normandy.<ref name=Carpenter72/>

=== Battle of Hastings ===
{{Main|Battle of Hastings}}

After defeating Harald Hardrada and Tostig, Harold left much of his army in the north, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched the rest south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion.<ref name=Carpenter72/> He probably learned of William's landing while he was travelling south. Harold stopped in London for about a week before marching to Hastings, so it is likely that he spent about a week on his march south, averaging about {{convert|27|mi|km|abbr=off}} per day,<ref name=Marren93>Marren ''1066'' p. 93</ref> for the distance of approximately {{convert|200|mi|km|abbr=off}}.<ref name=Huscroft124>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 124</ref> Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle are obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy.<ref name=Lawson180>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 180–182</ref> Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill (present-day [[Battle, East Sussex]]), about {{convert|6|mi|km|abbr=off}} from William's castle at Hastings.<ref name=Marren99>Marren ''1066'' pp. 99–100</ref>

[[File:Bayeux Tapestry Horses in Battle of Hastings.jpg|thumb|left|Scene from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicting the Battle of Hastings]]

The battle began at about 9&nbsp;am on 14 October and lasted all day. While a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts.<ref name=Huscroft126>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 126</ref> Although the numbers on each side were about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few, if any, archers.<ref name=Carpenter73>Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' p. 73</ref> The English soldiers formed up as a [[shield wall]] along the ridge and were at first so effective that William's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William's [[Breton people|Breton]] troops panicked and fled, and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons until they themselves were attacked and destroyed by Norman cavalry. During the Bretons' flight, rumours swept through the Norman forces that the duke had been killed, but William succeeded in rallying his troops. Two further Norman retreats were feigned, to draw the English into pursuit and expose them to repeated attacks by the Norman cavalry.<ref name=Huscroft127>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 127–128</ref> The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was Harold's death, about which differing stories are told. William of Jumièges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold's death by an arrow to the eye, but that may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th-century stories in which Harold was slain by an arrow wound to the head.<ref name=Huscroft129>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 129</ref>

Harold's body was identified the day after the battle, either through his armour or marks on his body. The English dead, including some of [[House of Godwin|Harold's brothers]] and his [[housecarl]]s, were left on the battlefield. [[Gytha Thorkelsdóttir]], Harold's mother, offered the duke the weight of her son's body in gold for it, but her offer was refused.{{efn|[[William of Malmesbury]] states that William did accept Gytha's offer, but William of Poitiers states that William refused the offer.<ref name=Godwine>Williams "Godwine, earl of Wessex" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref> Modern biographers of Harold agree that William refused the offer.<ref name=Walker181>Walker ''Harold'' p. 181</ref><ref name=Rex254>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 254</ref>}} William ordered the body thrown into the sea, but whether that took place is unclear. [[Waltham Abbey (abbey)|Waltham Abbey]], which Harold founded, later claimed that his body had been secretly buried there.<ref name=Huscroft131>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 131</ref>

=== March on London ===

William may have hoped the English would surrender following his victory, but they did not. Instead, some of the English clergy and magnates nominated Edgar the Ætheling as king, though their support for Edgar was only lukewarm. After waiting a short while, William secured [[Dover]], parts of Kent, and [[Canterbury]], while also sending a force to capture [[Winchester]], where the royal treasury was.<ref name=Huscroft132/> These captures secured William's rear areas and his line of retreat to Normandy, if that was needed.<ref name=DNB/> William then marched to [[Southwark]], across the [[Thames]] from London, which he reached in late November. Next, he led his forces around the south and west of London, burning along the way. He finally crossed the Thames at [[Wallingford, Oxfordshire|Wallingford]] in early December. Stigand submitted to William there, and when the duke moved on to [[Berkhamsted]] soon afterwards, Edgar the Ætheling, Morcar, Edwin, and Ealdred also submitted. William then sent forces into London to construct a castle; [[Coronation of William the Conqueror|he was crowned at Westminster Abbey]] on Christmas Day 1066.<ref name=Huscroft132>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 131–133</ref>

== Consolidation ==
{{Further|Government in Norman and Angevin England}}
=== First actions ===

William remained in England after his coronation and tried to reconcile the native magnates. The remaining earls&nbsp;– Edwin (of Mercia), Morcar (of Northumbria), and [[Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria|Waltheof]] (of Northampton)&nbsp;– were confirmed in their lands and titles.<ref name=Huscroft138/> Waltheof was married to William's niece Judith, daughter of his half-sister Adelaide,<ref name=Douglas423>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 423</ref> and a marriage between Edwin and one of William's daughters was proposed. Edgar the Ætheling also appears to have been given lands. Ecclesiastical offices continued to be held by the same bishops as before the invasion, including the uncanonical Stigand.<ref name=Huscroft138/> But the families of Harold and his brothers lost their lands, as did some others who had fought against William at Hastings.<ref name=Carpenter75/> By March, William was secure enough to return to Normandy, but he took with him Stigand, Morcar, Edwin, Edgar, and Waltheof. He left his half-brother Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux, in charge of England along with another influential supporter, [[William fitzOsbern]], the son of his former guardian.<ref name=Huscroft138 /> Both men were also named to earldoms&nbsp;– fitzOsbern to Hereford (or Wessex) and Odo to Kent.<ref name=DNB/> Although he put two Normans in overall charge, he retained many of the native English [[sheriff]]s.<ref name=Carpenter75>Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' pp. 75–76</ref> Once in Normandy the new English king went to Rouen and the [[Abbey of Fecamp]],<ref name=Huscroft138>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 138–139</ref> and then attended the consecration of new churches at two Norman monasteries.<ref name=DNB/>

While William was in Normandy, a former ally, [[Eustace II, Count of Boulogne|Eustace]], the [[Count of Boulogne]], [[Kentish Revolt of 1067|invaded at Dover]] but was repulsed. English resistance had also begun, with [[Eadric the Wild]] attacking [[Hereford]] and revolts at [[Exeter]], where Harold's mother Gytha was a focus of resistance.<ref name=Ruling57/> FitzOsbern and Odo found it difficult to control the native population and undertook a programme of castle-building to maintain their hold on the kingdom.<ref name=DNB/> William returned to England in December 1067 and marched on Exeter, which he besieged. The town held out for 18 days. After it fell to William he built a castle to secure his control. Harold's sons were meanwhile raiding the southwest of England from a base in Ireland. Their forces landed near [[Bristol]] but were defeated by [[Eadnoth the Constable|Eadnoth]]. By Easter, William was at Winchester, where he was soon joined by his wife Matilda, who was crowned in May 1068.<ref name=Ruling57>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' pp. 57–58</ref>

=== English resistance ===
{{Main|Harrying of the North}}
[[File:Baile Hill, York.JPG|The remains of [[Baile Hill]], the second [[motte-and-bailey castle]] built by William in York|thumb]]

In 1068 Edwin and Morcar rose in revolt, supported by [[Gospatric, Earl of Northumbria]]. Orderic Vitalis states that Edwin's reason for revolting was that the proposed marriage between himself and one of William's daughters had not taken place, but another reason probably included the increasing power of fitzOsbern in Herefordshire, which affected Edwin's power within his own earldom. The king marched through Edwin's lands and built [[Warwick Castle]]. Edwin and Morcar submitted, but William continued on to York, building [[York Castle|York]] and [[Nottingham Castle]]s before returning south. On his southbound journey, he began constructing [[Lincoln Castle|Lincoln]], [[Huntingdon Castle|Huntingdon]], and [[Cambridge Castle]]s. William placed supporters in charge of these new fortifications&nbsp;– among them [[William Peverel]] at Nottingham and [[Henry de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Warwick|Henry de Beaumont]] at Warwick&nbsp;– then returned to Normandy late in 1068.<ref name=Ruling57/>

Early in 1069, Edgar the Ætheling revolted and attacked York. Although William returned to York and built another castle, Edgar remained free, and in the autumn he joined up with King Sweyn.{{efn|Medieval chroniclers frequently referred to 11th-century events only by the season, making more precise dating impossible.}} The [[Danish attacks on Norman England|Danish king had brought a large fleet to England]] and attacked not only York but Exeter and [[Shrewsbury]]. York was captured by the combined forces of Edgar and Sweyn. Edgar was proclaimed king by his supporters. William responded swiftly, ignoring a continental revolt in Maine, and symbolically wore his crown in the ruins of York on Christmas Day 1069. He then bought off the Danes. He marched to the [[River Tees]], ravaging the countryside as he went. Edgar, having lost much of his support, fled to Scotland,<ref name=Carpenter76/> where King [[Malcolm III]] was married to Edgar's sister Margaret.<ref name=Douglas225>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 225</ref> Waltheof, who had joined the revolt, submitted, along with Gospatric, and both were allowed to retain their lands. William marched over the [[Pennines]] during the winter and defeated the remaining rebels at Shrewsbury before building [[Chester Castle|Chester]] and [[Stafford Castle]]s. This campaign, which included the burning and destruction of part of the countryside that the royal forces marched through, is usually known as the "[[Harrying of the North]]"; it was over by April 1070, when William wore his crown ceremonially for Easter at Winchester.<ref name=Carpenter76>Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' pp. 76–77</ref>

=== Church affairs ===

While at Winchester in 1070, William met with three [[papal legate]]s&nbsp;– John Minutus, Peter, and Ermenfrid of Sion&nbsp;– who had been sent by the pope. The legates ceremonially crowned William during the Easter court.<ref name=Bates106/> The historian [[David Bates (historian)|David Bates]] sees this coronation as the ceremonial papal "seal of approval" for William's conquest.<ref name=DNB/> The legates and the king then held a series of ecclesiastical councils dedicated to reforming and reorganising the English church. Stigand and his brother, [[Æthelmær of Elmham|Æthelmær]], the [[Bishop of Elmham]], were deposed from their bishoprics. Some of the native abbots were also deposed, both at the council held near Easter and at a further one near [[Whitsun]]. The Whitsun council saw the appointment of Lanfranc as the new Archbishop of Canterbury, and [[Thomas of Bayeux]] as the new Archbishop of York, to replace Ealdred, who had died in September 1069.<ref name=Bates106/> William's half-brother Odo perhaps expected to be appointed to Canterbury, but William probably did not wish to give that much power to a family member.{{efn|The historian Frank Barlow points out that William had suffered from his uncle Mauger's ambitions while young and thus would not have countenanced creating another such situation.<ref name=Barlow59/>}} Another reason for the appointment may have been pressure from the papacy to appoint Lanfranc.<ref name=Barlow59>Barlow ''English Church 1066–1154'' p. 59</ref> Norman clergy were appointed to replace the deposed bishops and abbots, and at the end of the process, only native English bishops remained in office, along with several continental prelates appointed by Edward the Confessor.<ref name=Bates106>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 106–107</ref> In 1070 William also founded [[Battle Abbey]], a new monastery at the site of the Battle of Hastings, partly as a penance for the deaths in the battle and partly as a memorial to the dead.<ref name=DNB/> At an ecclesiastical council held in Lillebonne in 1080, he was confirmed in his ultimate authority over the Norman church.<ref>Turner "Richard Lionheart" ''French Historical Studies'' p. 521</ref>

== Troubles in England and on the Continent ==

=== Danish raids and rebellion ===
{{Further|Ely Rebellion}}
Although Sweyn had promised to leave England, he returned in early 1070, raiding along the Humber and East Anglia toward the [[Isle of Ely]], where he joined up with [[Hereward the Wake]], a local [[thegn]]. Hereward's forces captured and looted [[Peterborough Abbey]]. William was able to secure the departure of Sweyn and his fleet in 1070,<ref name=Douglas221>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 221–222</ref> allowing him to return to the continent to deal with troubles in Maine, where the town of [[Le Mans]] had revolted in 1069. Another concern was the death of Count [[Baldwin VI of Flanders]] in July 1070, which led to a succession crisis as his widow, [[Richilde, Countess of Hainaut|Richilde]], was ruling for their two young sons, [[Arnulf III, Count of Flanders|Arnulf]] and [[Baldwin II, Count of Hainaut|Baldwin]]. Her rule was contested by [[Robert I, Count of Flanders|Robert]], Baldwin's brother. Richilde proposed marriage to William fitzOsbern, who was in Normandy, and fitzOsbern accepted. But after he was killed in February 1071 at the [[Battle of Cassel (1071)|Battle of Cassel]], Robert became count. He was opposed to King William's power on the continent, thus the Battle of Cassel upset the balance of power in northern France and cost William an important supporter.<ref name=Douglas223>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 223–225</ref>

In 1071 William defeated the last rebellion of the north. Earl Edwin was betrayed by his own men and killed, while William built a causeway to subdue the Isle of Ely, where Hereward the Wake and Morcar were hiding. Hereward escaped, but Morcar was captured, deprived of his earldom, and imprisoned. In 1072 William invaded Scotland, defeating Malcolm, who had recently invaded the north of England. William and Malcolm agreed to peace by signing the [[Treaty of Abernethy]], and Malcolm probably gave up his son [[Duncan II of Scotland|Duncan]] as a hostage for the peace. Perhaps another stipulation of the treaty was the expulsion of Edgar the Ætheling from Malcolm's court.<ref name=Bates107>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 107–109</ref> William then turned his attention to the continent, returning to Normandy in early 1073 to deal with the invasion of Maine by [[Fulk le Rechin]], the [[Count of Anjou]]. With a swift campaign, William seized Le Mans from Fulk's forces, completing the campaign by 30 March 1073. This made William's power more secure in northern France, but the new count of Flanders accepted Edgar the Ætheling into his court. Robert also married his half-sister [[Bertha of Holland|Bertha]] to King [[Philip I of France]], who was opposed to Norman power.<ref name=Douglas228>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 228–229</ref>

William returned to England to release his army from service in 1073 but quickly returned to Normandy, where he spent all of 1074.<ref name=Bates111>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 111</ref> He left England in the hands of his supporters, including [[Richard fitzGilbert]] and William de Warenne,<ref name=Bates112 /> as well as Lanfranc.<ref name=Douglas231 /> William's ability to leave England for an entire year was a sign that he felt that his control of the kingdom was secure.<ref name=Bates112>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 112</ref> While William was in Normandy, Edgar the Ætheling returned to Scotland from Flanders. The French king, seeking a focus for those opposed to William's power, proposed that Edgar be given the castle of [[Montreuil-sur-Mer]] on the Channel, which would have given Edgar a strategic advantage against William.<ref name=Douglas230 /> However, Edgar was forced to submit to William shortly thereafter, and he returned to William's court.<ref name=Bates111 />{{efn|Edgar remained at William's court until 1086 when he went to the [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|Norman principality in southern Italy]].<ref name=Bates111 />}} Philip, although thwarted in this attempt, turned his attentions to Brittany, leading to a revolt in 1075.<ref name=Douglas230>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 230–231</ref>

=== Revolt of the Earls ===
{{Main|Revolt of the Earls}}
[[File:Castle Mound - Norwich - geograph.org.uk - 780624.jpg|thumb|left|[[Norwich Castle]]. The [[keep]] dates to after the Revolt of the Earls, but the castle mound is earlier.<ref name=Castles161>Pettifer ''English Castles'' pp. 161–162</ref>]]

In 1075, during William's absence, [[Ralph de Gael]], the [[Earl of Norfolk]], and [[Roger de Breteuil]], the [[Earl of Hereford]], conspired to overthrow William in the "Revolt of the Earls".<ref name=Douglas231/> Ralph was at least part Breton and had spent most of his life prior to 1066 in Brittany, where he still had lands.<ref name=Ralph>Williams "Ralph, earl" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref> Roger was a Norman, son of William fitzOsbern, but had inherited less authority than his father held.<ref name=Roger>Lewis "Breteuil, Roger de, earl of Hereford" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref> Ralph's authority seems also to have been less than his predecessors in the earldom, and this was likely the cause of his involvement in the revolt.<ref name=Ralph/>

The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear. It was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger, held at [[Exning]] in Suffolk. Waltheof, the earl of Northumbria, although one of William's favourites, was involved, and some Breton lords were ready to rebel in support of Ralph and Roger. Ralph also requested Danish aid. William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt. Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by [[Wulfstan (died 1095)|Wulfstan]], the [[Bishop of Worcester]], and [[Æthelwig]], the [[Abbot of Evesham]]. Ralph was bottled up in [[Norwich Castle]] by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux, [[Geoffrey de Montbray]], Richard fitzGilbert, and William de Warenne. Ralph eventually left Norwich in the control of his wife and left England, ending up in Brittany. Norwich was besieged and surrendered, with the garrison allowed to go to Brittany. Meanwhile, the Danish king's brother, [[Canute IV of Denmark|Cnut]], had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but Norwich had already surrendered. The Danes raided along the coast before returning home.<ref name=Douglas231 /> William returned to England later in 1075 to deal with the Danish threat, leaving his wife Matilda in charge of Normandy. He celebrated Christmas at Winchester and dealt with the aftermath of the rebellion.<ref name=Bates181>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 181–182</ref> Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison, where Waltheof was executed in May 1076. Before this, William had returned to the continent, where Ralph had continued the rebellion from Brittany.<ref name=Douglas231>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 231–233</ref>

=== Troubles at home and abroad ===

Earl Ralph had secured control of the castle at [[Dol-de-Bretagne|Dol]], and in September 1076 William advanced into Brittany and laid siege to the castle. King Philip of France later relieved the siege and defeated William at the [[Battle of Dol (1076)|Battle of Dol]] in 1076, forcing him to retreat to Normandy. Although this was William's first defeat in battle, it did little to change things. An Angevin attack on Maine was defeated in late 1076 or 1077, with Count Fulk le Rechin wounded in the unsuccessful attack. More serious was the retirement of [[Simon de Crépy]], the [[Count of Amiens]], to a monastery. Before he became a monk, Simon handed his county of the [[Vexin]] over to King Philip. The Vexin was a buffer state between Normandy and the lands of the French king, and Simon had been a supporter of William.{{efn|Although Simon was a supporter of William, the Vexin was actually under the overlordship of King Philip, which is why Philip secured control of the county when Simon became a monk.<ref name=Bates183/>}} William was able to make peace with Philip in 1077 and secured a truce with Count Fulk in late 1077 or early 1078.<ref name=Bates183>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 183–184</ref>

In late 1077 or early 1078 trouble began between William and his eldest son, Robert. Although Orderic Vitalis describes it as starting with a quarrel between Robert and his younger brothers [[William II of England|William]] and [[Henry I of England|Henry]], including a story that the quarrel was started when William and Henry threw water at Robert, it is much more likely that Robert was feeling powerless. Orderic relates that he had previously demanded control of Maine and Normandy and had been rebuffed. The trouble in 1077 or 1078 resulted in Robert leaving Normandy accompanied by a band of young men, many of them the sons of William's supporters. Included among them were [[Robert of Belleme]], [[William de Breteuil]], and Roger, the son of Richard fitzGilbert. This band went to the castle at [[Remalard]], where they proceeded to raid into Normandy. The raiders were supported by many of William's continental enemies.<ref name=Bates185>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 185–186</ref> William immediately attacked the rebels and drove them from Remalard, but King Philip gave them the castle at [[Gerberoi]], where they were joined by new supporters. William then laid siege to Gerberoi in January 1079. After three weeks, the besieged forces [[sortie|sallied]] from the castle and took the besiegers by surprise. William was unhorsed by Robert and was only saved from death by an Englishman, [[Toki son of Wigod]], who was himself killed.<ref>Douglas and Greenaway, p. 158</ref> William's forces were forced to lift the siege, and the king returned to Rouen. By 12 April 1080, William and Robert had reached an accommodation, with William once more affirming that Robert would receive Normandy when he died.<ref name=Douglas238>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 238–239</ref>

[[File:Williams dominions 1087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Map showing William's lands in 1087 (light pink)]]

Word of William's defeat at Gerberoi stirred up difficulties in northern England. In August and September 1079 King Malcolm of Scots raided south of the [[River Tweed]], devastating the land between the River Tees and the Tweed in a raid that lasted almost a month. The lack of Norman response appears to have caused the Northumbrians to grow restive, and in the spring of 1080 they rebelled against the rule of [[Walcher]], the [[Bishop of Durham]] and Earl of Northumbria. Walcher was killed on 14 May 1080, and the king dispatched his half-brother Odo to deal with the rebellion.<ref name=Douglas240/> William departed Normandy in July 1080,<ref name=Bates188>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 188</ref> and in the autumn his son Robert was sent on a campaign against the Scots. Robert raided into Lothian and forced Malcolm to agree to terms, building the 'new castle' at [[Newcastle upon Tyne]] while returning to England.<ref name=Douglas240>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 240–241</ref> The king was at Gloucester for Christmas 1080 and at Winchester for Whitsun in 1081, ceremonially wearing his crown on both occasions. A papal embassy arrived in England during this period, asking that William do fealty for England to the papacy, a request that he rejected.<ref name=Bates188/> William also [[visited Wales in 1081]], although the English and the Welsh sources differ on the purpose of the visit. The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' states that it was a military campaign, but Welsh sources record it as a pilgrimage to [[St Davids]] in honour of [[Saint David]]. William's biographer David Bates argues that the former explanation is more likely: the balance of power had recently shifted in Wales and William would have wished to take advantage of this to extend Norman power. By the end of 1081, William was back on the continent, dealing with disturbances in Maine. Although he led an expedition into Maine, the result was instead a negotiated settlement arranged by a papal legate.<ref name=Bates189>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 189</ref>

=== Last years ===

Sources for William's actions between 1082 and 1084 are meagre. According to the historian David Bates, this probably means that little of note happened, and that because William was on the continent, there was nothing for the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' to record.<ref name=Bates193>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 193</ref> In 1082, William ordered the arrest of his half-brother Odo. The exact reasons are unclear, as no contemporary author recorded what caused the quarrel between the half-brothers. Orderic Vitalis later recorded that Odo had aspirations to become pope and that Odo had attempted to persuade some of William's vassals to join Odo in an invasion of southern Italy. This would have been considered tampering with the king's authority over his vassals, which William would not have tolerated. Although Odo remained in confinement for the rest of William's reign, his lands were not confiscated. In 1083, William's son Robert rebelled once more with support from the French king. A further blow was the death of Queen Matilda on 2 November 1083. William was always described as close to his wife, and her death would have added to his problems.<ref name=Douglas243>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 243–244</ref>

Maine continued to be difficult, with a rebellion by [[Hubert de Beaumont-au-Maine]], probably in 1084. Hubert was besieged in his castle at [[Siege of Saint-Suzanne, 1083-1086|Sainte-Suzanne]] by William's forces for at least two years, but he eventually made peace with the king and was restored to favour. William's movements during 1084 and 1085 are unclear&nbsp;– he was in Normandy at Easter 1084 but may have been in England before then to collect the [[danegeld]] assessed that year for the defence of England against an invasion by King [[Cnut IV of Denmark]]. Although English and Norman forces remained on alert throughout 1085 and into 1086, the invasion threat was ended by Cnut's death in July 1086.<ref name=Bates196>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 196–198</ref>

== William as king ==

=== Changes in England ===
{{See also|English castles|Royal forest#Royal forests in England}}

[[File:Tower of London White Tower.jpg|thumb|left|The White Tower in London, begun by William<ref name=Castles151>Pettifer ''English Castles'' p. 151</ref>]]

As part of his efforts to secure England, William ordered many castles, [[keep]]s, and [[motte]]s built&nbsp;– among them the central keep of the [[Tower of London]], the [[White Tower (Tower of London)|White Tower]]. These fortifications allowed Normans to retreat into safety when threatened with rebellion and allowed garrisons to be protected while they occupied the countryside. The early castles were simple earth and timber constructions, later replaced with stone structures.<ref name=Bates147>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 147–148</ref>

At first, most of the newly settled Normans kept household [[knight]]s and did not settle their retainers with [[fief]]s of their own, but gradually these household knights came to be granted lands of their own, a process known as [[subinfeudation]]. William also required his newly created magnates to contribute fixed quotas of knights towards not only military campaigns but also castle garrisons. This method of organising the military forces was a departure from the pre-Conquest English practice of basing military service on territorial units such as the [[Hide (unit)|hide]].<ref name=Bates154>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 154–155</ref>

By William's death, after weathering a series of rebellions, most of the native Anglo-Saxon aristocracy had been replaced by Norman and other continental magnates. Not all of the Normans who accompanied William in the initial conquest acquired large amounts of land in England. Some appear to have been reluctant to take up lands in a kingdom that did not always appear pacified. Although some of the newly rich Normans in England came from William's close family or from the upper Norman nobility, others were from relatively humble backgrounds.<ref name=Bates148>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 148–149</ref> William granted some lands to his continental followers from the holdings of one or more specific Englishmen; at other times, he granted a compact grouping of lands previously held by many different Englishmen to one Norman follower, often to allow for the consolidation of lands around a strategically placed castle.<ref name=Bates152>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 152–153</ref>

The medieval chronicler [[William of Malmesbury]] says that the king also seized and depopulated many miles of land (36 parishes), turning it into the royal [[New Forest]] to support his enthusiastic enjoyment of hunting. Modern historians have concluded that the New Forest depopulation was greatly exaggerated. Most of the New Forest comprises poor agricultural lands, and archaeological and geographic studies have shown that it was likely sparsely settled when it was turned into a [[royal forest]].<ref name=Young7>Young ''Royal Forests'' pp. 7–8</ref> William was known for his love of hunting, and he introduced the forest law into areas of the country, regulating who could hunt and what could be hunted.<ref name=Bates118>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 118–119</ref>

=== Administration ===
{{Main|Norman conquest of England#Consequences}}

[[File:William the Conqueror 1066 1087.jpg|thumb|upright|English coin of William the Conqueror]]

After 1066, William did not attempt to integrate his separate domains into one unified realm with one set of laws. His [[Seal (emblem)|seal]] from after 1066, of which six impressions still survive, was made for him after he conquered England and stressed his role as king, while separately mentioning his role as duke.{{efn|The seal shows a mounted knight and is the first extant example of an [[equestrian seal]].<ref name=Bates138/>}} When in Normandy, William acknowledged that he owed fealty to the French king, but in England no such acknowledgement was made&nbsp;– further evidence that the various parts of William's lands were considered separate. The administrative machinery of Normandy, England, and Maine continued to exist separate from the other lands, with each one retaining its own forms. For example, England continued the use of [[writ]]s, which were not known on the continent. Also, the charters and documents produced for the government in Normandy differed in formulas from those produced in England.<ref name=Bates138>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 138–141</ref>

William took over an English government that was more complex than the Norman system. England was divided into [[shire]]s or counties, which were further divided into either [[hundred (county subdivision)|hundreds]] or [[wapentake]]s. Each shire was administered by a royal official called a sheriff, who roughly had the same status as a Norman [[viscount]]. A sheriff was responsible for royal justice and collecting royal revenue.<ref name=Bates23/> To oversee his expanded domain, William was forced to travel even more than he had as duke. He crossed back and forth between the continent and England at least 19 times between 1067 and his death. William spent most of his time in England between the Battle of Hastings and 1072; after that, he spent the majority of his time in Normandy.<ref name=Bates133134>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 133–134</ref>{{efn|Between 1066 and 1072, William spent only 15 months in Normandy and the rest in England. After returning to Normandy in 1072, he spent around 130 months in Normandy as against about 40 months in England.<ref name=Bates133134/>}} Government was still centred on William's [[royal household|household]]; when he was in one part of his realms, decisions would be made for other parts of his domains and transmitted through a communication system that made use of letters and other documents. William also appointed deputies who could make decisions while he was absent, especially if the absence was expected to be lengthy. Usually, this was a member of William's close family&nbsp;– frequently his half-brother Odo or his wife Matilda. Sometimes deputies were appointed to deal with specific issues.<ref name=Bates136>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 136–137</ref>

William continued the collection of [[danegeld]], a land tax. This was an advantage for William and the only universal tax collected by western European rulers during this period. It was an annual tax based on the value of landholdings and could be collected at differing rates. Most years saw the rate of two shillings per hide, but in crises, it could be increased to as much as six shillings per hide.<ref name=Bates151>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 151–152</ref> Coinage across his domains continued to be minted in different cycles and styles. English coins were generally of high silver content, with high artistic standards, and were required to be re-minted every three years. Norman coins had a much lower silver content, were often of poor artistic quality, and were rarely re-minted. In England, no other coinage was allowed, while on the continent other coinage was considered [[legal tender]]. Nor is there evidence that many English [[pennies]] were circulating in Normandy, which shows little attempt to integrate the monetary systems of England and Normandy.<ref name=Bates138/>

Besides taxation, William's large landholdings throughout England strengthened his rule. As King Edward's heir, he controlled all of the former royal lands. He also retained control of much of the lands of Harold and his family, which made the king the largest secular landowner in England by a wide margin.{{efn|In ''[[Domesday Book]]'', the king's lands were worth four times as much as the lands of his half-brother Odo, the next largest landowner, and seven times as much as [[Roger of Montgomery]], the third-largest landowner.<ref name=Bates150>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 150</ref>}}

=== Domesday Book ===
{{Main|Domesday Book}}
[[File:Domesday Book - Warwickshire.png|upright|thumb|A page from the ''[[Domesday Book]]'' for Warwickshire]]

At Christmas 1085, William ordered the compilation of a survey of the landholdings held by himself and by his vassals throughout his kingdom, organised by counties. It resulted in a work now known as the ''[[Domesday Book]]''. The listing for each county gives the holdings of each landholder, grouped by owners. The listings describe the holding, who owned the land before the Conquest, its value, its tax assessment, and usually the number of peasants, ploughs, and any other resources the holding had. Towns were listed separately. All the English counties south of the River Tees and [[River Ribble]] are included. The whole work seems to have been mostly completed by 1 August 1086, when the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' records that William received the results and that all the chief magnates swore the [[Salisbury Oath]], a renewal of their oaths of allegiance.<ref name=Bates198>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 198–202</ref> William's motivation in ordering the survey is unclear, but it probably had several purposes, such as making a record of feudal obligations and justifying increased taxation.<ref name=DNB/>

== Death and aftermath ==

William left England towards the end of 1086. Following his arrival back on the continent he married his daughter [[Constance of Normandy|Constance]] to Duke [[Alan IV, Duke of Brittany|Alan of Brittany]], in furtherance of his policy of seeking allies against the French kings. William's son Robert, still allied with the French king, appears to have been active in stirring up trouble, enough so that William led an expedition against the French Vexin in July 1087. While seizing [[Mantes]], William either fell ill or was injured by the [[pommel (saddle)|pommel]] of his saddle.<ref name=Bates202/> He was taken to the [[priory]] of Saint Gervase at Rouen, where he died on 9 September 1087.<ref name=DNB/> Knowledge of the events preceding his death is confused because there are two different accounts. Orderic Vitalis preserves a lengthy account, complete with speeches made by many of the principals, but this is likely more of an account of how a king should die than of what actually happened. The other, the ''[[De obitu Willelmi]]'', or ''On the Death of William'', has been shown to be a copy of two 9th-century accounts with names changed.<ref name=Bates202>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 202–205</ref>

[[File:Church of Saint-Étienne interior (2).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|William's grave before the high altar in the [[Abbaye-aux-Hommes]], Caen]]

William left Normandy to Robert, and the custody of England was given to William's second surviving son, also called William, on the assumption that he would become king. The youngest son, Henry, received money. After entrusting England to his second son, the elder William sent the younger William back to England on 7 or 8 September, bearing a letter to Lanfranc ordering the archbishop to aid the new king. Other bequests included gifts to the Church and money to be distributed to the poor. William also ordered that all of his prisoners be released, including his half-brother Odo.<ref name=Bates202/>

Disorder followed William's death; everyone who had been at his deathbed left the body at Rouen and hurried off to attend to their own affairs. Eventually, the clergy of Rouen arranged to have the body sent to Caen, where William had desired to be buried in his foundation of the [[Abbaye-aux-Hommes]]. The funeral, attended by the bishops and abbots of Normandy as well as his son Henry, was disturbed by a citizen of Caen who alleged that his family had been illegally despoiled of the land on which the church was built. After hurried consultations, the allegation was shown to be true, and the man was compensated. A further indignity occurred when the corpse was lowered into the tomb. The corpse was too large for the space, and when attendants forced the body into the tomb it burst, spreading a disgusting odour throughout the church.<ref name=Bates207>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 207–208</ref>

William's grave is marked by a marble slab with a [[Latin]] inscription dating from the early 19th century. The tomb has been disturbed several times since 1087, the first time in 1522 when the grave was opened on orders from the papacy. The intact body was restored to the tomb at that time, but in 1562, during the [[French Wars of Religion]], the grave was reopened and the bones scattered and lost, with the exception of one thigh bone. This lone relic was reburied in 1642 with a new marker, which was replaced 100 years later with a more elaborate monument. This tomb was again destroyed during the [[French Revolution]] but was eventually replaced with the current [[ledger stone]].<ref name=Douglas362>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 362–363</ref>{{efn|The thigh bone currently in the tomb is assumed to be the one that was reburied in 1642, but the Victorian historian [[E. A. Freeman]] was of the opinion that the bone had been lost in 1793.<ref name=Douglas363>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 363 footnote 4</ref>}}

== Legacy ==
[[File:Statue d'Dgilliaume lé Contchéthant à Falaise 01.jpg|thumb|[[Statue of William the Conqueror]] in Falaise, France]]
The immediate consequence of William's death was a war between his sons Robert and William over control of England and Normandy.<ref name=DNB/> Even after the younger William's death in 1100 and the succession of his youngest brother Henry as king, Normandy and England remained contested between the brothers until Robert's capture by Henry at the [[Battle of Tinchebray]] in 1106. The difficulties over the succession led to a loss of authority in Normandy, with the aristocracy regaining much of the power they had lost to the elder William. His sons also lost much of their control over Maine, which revolted in 1089 and managed to remain mostly free of Norman influence thereafter.<ref name=Bates208>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 208–209</ref>

The impact on England of William's conquest was profound; changes in the Church, aristocracy, culture, and language of the country have persisted into modern times. The Conquest brought the kingdom into closer contact with France and forged ties that lasted throughout the Middle Ages. Another consequence of William's invasion was the sundering of the formerly close ties between England and Scandinavia.  William's government blended elements of the English and Norman systems into a new one that laid the foundations of the later medieval English kingdom.<ref name=Bates210>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 210–211</ref> How abrupt and far-reaching the changes were is still a matter of debate among historians, with some such as [[Richard Southern]] claiming that the Conquest was the single most radical change in European history between the Fall of Rome and the 20th century. Others, such as H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles, see the changes as much less radical.<ref name=Rulers31/> The historian Eleanor Searle describes William's invasion as "a plan that no ruler but a Scandinavian would have considered".<ref name=Searle232>Searle ''Predatory Kinship'' p. 232</ref>

William's reign has caused historical controversy since before his death. William of Poitiers wrote glowingly of William's reign and its benefits, but the obituary notice for William in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' condemns William in harsh terms.<ref name=Rulers31>Clanchy ''England and its Rulers'' pp. 31–32</ref> During the reign of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], Archbishop [[Matthew Parker]] saw the Conquest as having corrupted a purer English Church, which Parker attempted to restore. During the 17th and 18th centuries, some historians and lawyers saw William's reign as imposing a "[[Norman yoke]]" on the native Anglo-Saxons, an argument that continued during the 19th century with further elaborations along nationalistic lines. These controversies have led to William being seen by some historians either as one of the creators of England's greatness or as inflicting one of the greatest defeats in English history. Others have viewed him as an enemy of the English constitution, or alternatively as its creator.<ref name=Douglas4>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 4–5</ref>

== Family and children ==
William and his wife Matilda had at least nine children.<ref name=Douglas393 /> The birth order of the sons is clear, but no source gives the relative order of birth of the daughters.<ref name=DNB />

# [[Robert Curthose|Robert]] was born between 1051 and 1054, died on 10 February 1134.<ref name=Douglas393>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 393–395</ref> Duke of Normandy, married [[Sybilla of Conversano|Sybilla]], daughter of [[Geoffrey, Count of Conversano]].<ref name=RobertDNB>Thompson "Robert, duke of Normandy" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref>
# [[Richard, son of William the Conqueror|Richard]] was born before 1056, died around 1075.<ref name=Douglas393/>
# [[William II of England|William]] was born between 1056 and 1060, died on 2 August 1100.<ref name=Douglas393/> King of England, killed in the New Forest.<ref name=RufusDNB>Barlow "William II" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref>
# [[Henry I of England|Henry]] was born in late 1068, and died on 1 December 1135.<ref name=Douglas393/> King of England, married [[Matilda of Scotland|Edith]], daughter of [[Malcolm III of Scotland]]. His second wife was [[Adeliza of Louvain]].<ref name=Handbook35/>
# [[Adeliza]] (or Adelida,<ref name=Adelida /> Adelaide<ref name=Handbook35>Fryde, et al., ''Handbook of British Chronology'', p. 35</ref>) died before 1113, reportedly betrothed to Harold Godwinson, probably a nun of Saint Léger at Préaux.<ref name=Adelida>Van Houts "Adelida" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref>
# [[Cecilia of Normandy|Cecilia]] (or Cecily) was born before 1066, died 1127, Abbess of [[Abbey of Sainte-Trinité, Caen|Holy Trinity, Caen]].<ref name=Douglas393/>
# Matilda<ref name=DNB>Bates "William I" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref><ref name=Adelida /> was born around 1061, died perhaps about 1086.<ref name=Handbook35/> Mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 as a daughter of William.<ref name=Douglas393/>
# [[Constance of Normandy|Constance]] died 1090, married [[Alan IV, Duke of Brittany]].<ref name=Douglas393/>
# [[Adela of Normandy|Adela]] died 1137, married [[Stephen, Count of Blois]].<ref name=Douglas393/>
# (Possibly) Agatha, the betrothed of [[Alfonso VI of León and Castile]].{{efn|[[William of Poitiers]] relates that two brothers, Iberian kings, were competitors for the hand of a daughter of William, which led to a dispute between them.<ref name=Salazar>Salazar y Acha "Contribución al estudio" ''Anales de la Real Academia'' pp. 307–308</ref> Some historians have identified these as [[Sancho II of Castile]] and his brother [[García II of Galicia]], and the bride as Sancho's documented wife [[Alberta, Queen of Castile|Alberta]], who bears a non-Iberian name.<ref name=Reilly>Reilly ''Kingdom of Leon-Castile'' p. 47</ref> The anonymous ''vita'' of Simon de Crépy instead makes the competitors [[Alfonso VI of León]] and [[Robert Guiscard]], while [[William of Malmesbury]] and [[Orderic Vitalis]] both show a daughter of William to have been betrothed to Alfonso "king of Galicia" but to have died before the marriage.  In his ''Historia Ecclesiastica'', Orderic specifically names her as Agatha, "former fiancee of Harold".<ref name=Salazar/><ref name=Reilly/> This conflicts with Orderic's own earlier additions to the ''[[Gesta Normannorum Ducum]]'', where he instead named Harold's fiance as William's daughter, Adelidis.<ref name=Adelida/> Recent accounts of the complex marital history of Alfonso VI have accepted that he was betrothed to a daughter of William named Agatha,<ref name=Salazar/><ref name=Reilly/><ref>Canal Sánchez-Pagín "Jimena Muñoz" ''Anuario de Estudios Medievales'' pp. 12–14</ref> while Douglas dismisses Agatha as a confused reference to known daughter Adeliza.<ref name=Douglas393/> [[Elisabeth van Houts]] is non-committal, being open to the possibility that Adeliza was engaged before becoming a nun, but also accepting that Agatha may have been a distinct daughter of William.<ref name=Adelida/>}}

There is no evidence of any illegitimate children born to William.<ref name=Bastards59>Given-Wilson and Curteis ''Royal Bastards'' p. 59</ref>

== Notes ==
{{notelist|60em}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|40em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin|60em}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Barlow, Frank |title=Edward (St Edward; known as Edward the Confessor) (1003x5–1066) |author-link=Frank Barlow (historian) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8516 |access-date=16 May 2012 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8516 |ref=none|url-access=subscription }} {{ODNBsub}}
* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |title=The English Church 1066–1154: A History of the Anglo-Norman Church |author-link=Frank Barlow (historian) |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1979 |isbn=0-582-50236-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Barlow, Frank |title=William II (c. 1060–1100) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |author-link=Frank Barlow (historian) |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/29449 |access-date=29 June 2012 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/29449 |ref=none|url-access=subscription }} {{ODNBsub}}
* {{cite book |author=Bates, David |title=William the Conqueror |author-link=David Bates (historian) |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |series=Kings and Queens of Medieval England |year=2001 |isbn=0-7524-1980-3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Bates, David |title=William I (known as William the Conqueror) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |author-link=David Bates (historian) |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/29448?docPos=2 |access-date=26 March 2012 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/29448 |ref=none|url-access=subscription }} {{ODNBsub}}
* {{cite journal |author=Canal Sánchez-Pagín, José María |title=Jimena Muñoz, Amiga de Alfonso VI |journal=Anuario de Estudios Medievales |year=2020 |language=es |volume= 21 |pages=11–40 |doi=10.3989/aem.1991.v21.1103 |doi-access=free |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Carpenter, David |title=The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284 |author-link=David Carpenter (historian) |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |year=2004 |isbn=0-14-014824-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book | author=Clanchy, M. T. |title=England and its Rulers: 1066–1307 |author-link=Michael Clanchy |publisher= Blackwell |edition=Third |year=2006 |series=Blackwell Classic Histories of England |location=Oxford |isbn=1-4051-0650-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Collins, Roger |title=Early Medieval Europe: 300–1000 |author-link=Roger Collins |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=0-312-21886-9 |edition=Second |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Crouch, David |title=The Birth of Nobility: Constructing Aristocracy in England and France, 900–1300 |author-link=David Crouch (historian) |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=2005 |isbn=0-582-36981-9 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author= Douglas, David C. |title=William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England |author-link=David C. Douglas |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location= Berkeley|oclc= 399137 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author= Douglas, David C. |author2=Greenaway, G. W. |title= English Historical Documents, 1042–1189 |year=1981 |publisher= Routledge |location= London and New York |isbn=0-203-43951-1|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Fryde, E. B. |author2=Greenway, D. E. |author3=Porter, S. |author4= Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology |edition=Third revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Given-Wilson, Chris |author2=Curteis, Alice |title=The Royal Bastards of Medieval England |year=1995 |publisher=Barnes & Noble |location= New York |isbn=1-56619-962-X |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Huscroft, Richard |title=The Norman Conquest: A New Introduction |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4058-1155-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Huscroft, Richard |title=Ruling England 1042–1217 |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=0-582-84882-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Lawson, M. K. |title=The Battle of Hastings: 1066 |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2002 |isbn=0-7524-1998-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Lewis, C. P. |title=Breteuil, Roger de, earl of Hereford (fl. 1071–1087) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/9661 |access-date=25 June 2012 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/9661|ref=none |url-access=subscription }} {{ODNBsub}}
* {{cite book |author=Marren, Peter|author1-link=Peter Marren|title=1066: The Battles of York, Stamford Bridge & Hastings |publisher=Leo Cooper |series=Battleground Britain |year=2004 |location= Barnsley, UK |isbn=0-85052-953-0|ref=none }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Miller, Sean |title=Ætheling |encyclopedia=Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Lapidge |editor2=Blair, John |editor2-link=John Blair (historian) |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor-link3=Simon Keynes |editor4=Scragg, Donald |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1 |pages=13–14|ref=none }}
* {{cite book |author=Pettifer, Adrian |title=English Castles: A Guide by Counties |publisher=Boydell |location=Woodbridge, UK |year=1995 |isbn=0-85115-782-3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Potts, Cassandra |chapter=Normandy, 911–1144 |pages=19–42 |title=A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World |editor1=Harper-Bill, Christopher |editor2=Van Houts, Elisabeth M. C. |publisher=Boydell |year=2002|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Reilly, Bernard F. |year=1988 |title=The Kingdom of Leon-Castile Under Alfonso VI |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-05515-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Rex, Peter |title=Harold II: The Doomed Saxon King |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7394-7185-2|ref=none }}
* {{cite journal |author=Salazar y Acha, Jaime de |title=Contribución al estudio del reinado de Alfonso VI de Castilla: algunas aclaraciones sobre su política matrimonial |journal=Anales de la Real Academia Matritense de Heráldica y Genealogía |language=es |year=1992–1993 |volume=2 |pages=299–336 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Searle, Eleanor |title=Predatory Kinship and the Creation of Norman Power, 840–1066 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1988 |isbn=0-520-06276-0|ref=none }}
* {{cite book |author=Thomas, Hugh |title=The Norman Conquest: England after William the Conqueror |series=Critical Issues in History |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |location=Lanham, MD |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7425-3840-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Thompson, Kathleen |title=Robert, duke of Normandy (b. in or after 1050, d. 1134) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/23715 |access-date=3 April 2012 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/23715|ref=none |url-access=subscription }} {{ODNBsub}}
* {{cite journal |author=Turner, Ralph V. |title=Richard Lionheart and the Episcopate in His French Domains |journal=French Historical Studies |volume=21|issue=4 Autumn |year=1998 |pages=517–542 |doi=10.2307/286806 |jstor=286806 |s2cid=159612172 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=van Houts, Elizabeth |title=Adelida (Adeliza) (d. before 1113) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/164 |access-date=26 March 2012 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/164 |ref=none|url-access=subscription }} {{ODNBsub}}
* {{cite journal |author=van Houts, Elisabeth |title=Les femmes dans l'histoire du duché de Normandie (Women in the history of ducal Normandy) |url=http://www.unicaen.fr/mrsh/craham/revue/tabularia/print.php?dossier=dossier2&file=03vanhouts.xml |language=fr |journal=Tabularia "Études" |issue=2 |year=2002 |pages=19–34 |doi=10.4000/tabularia.1736 |s2cid=193557186 |doi-access=free |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Walker, Ian |title=Harold the Last Anglo-Saxon King |publisher=Wrens Park |location=Gloucestershire, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-905778-46-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |title=William the Conqueror |url=https://www.royal.uk/william-the-conqueror |work=The Royal Family |publisher=the Royal Household |location=London |access-date=16 March 2023 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Williams, Ann |title=Æthelred the Unready: The Ill-Counselled King |author-link= Ann Williams (historian) |publisher=Hambledon & London |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=1-85285-382-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Williams, Ann |title=Godwine, earl of Wessex (d. 1053) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |author-link= Ann Williams (historian) |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/10887 |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10887 |access-date=27 May 2012 |ref=none|url-access=subscription }} {{ODNBsub}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Williams, Ann |title=Ralph, earl (d. 1097x9) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |author-link=Ann Williams (historian) |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/11707 |access-date=25 June 2012 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/11707 |ref=none|url-access=subscription }} {{ODNBsub}}
* {{cite book |author=Young, Charles R. |title=The Royal Forests of Medieval England |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |year=1979 |isbn=0-8122-7760-0 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-William the Conqueror-article.oga|date=5 July 2014}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Normandy]]||1028|9 September|1087}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Edgar Ætheling]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of England]]|years=1066–1087}}
{{s-aft|after=[[William II of England|William II]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Robert the Magnificent|Robert I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Duke of Normandy]]|years=1035–1087}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Robert Curthose|Robert II]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{English, Scottish and British monarchs}}
{{Norman Dukes}}
{{Norman Conquest}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Subject bar |portal1=Middle Ages |portal2=England |portal3=France |portal4=Royalty|portal6=Biography |commons=y |commons-search= William I of England |q=y |q-search = William I of England |s=y |s-search= Author:William I of England }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:William the Conqueror}}
[[Category:William the Conqueror| ]]
[[Category:1020s births]]
[[Category:1087 deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:11th-century French nobility]]
[[Category:11th-century monarchs of England]]
[[Category:11th-century dukes of Normandy]]
[[Category:Anglo-Normans]]
[[Category:Norman warriors]]
[[Category:British monarchs buried abroad]]
[[Category:Deaths by horse-riding accident in France]]
[[Category:English people of French descent]]
[[Category:English Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:French Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:House of Normandy]]
[[Category:Medieval child monarchs]]
[[Category:Norman conquest of England]]
[[Category:People from Falaise, Calvados]]
[[Category:Tower of London]]
[[Category:Illegitimate children of royalty]]