Editing Yellow Peril

{{short description|Racial color metaphor}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2021}}
{{Fin de siecle sidebar}}

The '''Yellow Peril''' (also the '''Yellow Terror''', the '''Yellow Menace''', and the '''Yellow Specter''') is a [[Racism|racist]] [[color terminology for race|color metaphor]] that depicts the peoples of [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]]{{efn|Also known as the [[Far East]].}} as an existential danger to the [[Western world]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Odijie |first1=Michael |title=The Fear of 'Yellow Peril' and the Emergence of European Federalist Movement |journal=The International History Review |date=2018 |volume=40 |issue=2 |page=359 |doi=10.1080/07075332.2017.1329751|s2cid=158011865 }}</ref>

The concept of the Yellow Peril derives from a "core imagery of apes, lesser men, primitives, children, madmen, and beings who possessed special powers",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dower |first=John W. |title=War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War |publisher=Pantheon |year=1986 |isbn=978-0394751726 |location=New York |pages=3–13 |language=EN}}</ref> which developed during the 19th century as Western imperialist expansion adduced East Asians as the Yellow Peril.<ref name="Yang">{{cite web| last = Yang| first = Tim| title = The Malleable Yet Undying Nature of the Yellow Peril| publisher = Dartmouth College| date = 19 February 2004| url = http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/S22%20-The%20Malleable%20Yet%20Undying%20Nature%20of%20the%20Yellow%20Peril.htm| access-date = 18 December 2014| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150102102520/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/S22%20-The%20Malleable%20Yet%20Undying%20Nature%20of%20the%20Yellow%20Peril.htm| archive-date = 2 January 2015| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>Dower, John. "Patterns of a Race War" pp. 283–287, in ''Yellow Peril! An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear'', John Kuo Wei Tchen & Dylan Yeats, Eds. London: Verso, 2014 pp. 285–286.</ref> In the late 19th century, the Russian sociologist Jacques Novicow coined the term in the essay "Le Péril Jaune" ("The Yellow Peril", 1897), which Kaiser [[Wilhelm II]] (r. 1888–1918) used to encourage the European empires to invade, conquer, and colonize China.<ref>John Röhl. ''The Kaiser and His Court: Wilhelm II and the Government of Germany'', Cambridge University Press, 1994. p. 203.</ref> To that end, using the Yellow Peril ideology, the Kaiser portrayed the Japanese and the Asian victory against the Russians in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] (1904–1905) as an Asian racial threat to white Western Europe, and also exposes China and Japan as an alliance to [[Slavery|conquer, subjugate, and enslave]] the Western world.

The [[Sinology|sinologist]] Wing-Fai Leung explained the origins of the term and the racialist ideology: "The phrase ''yellow peril'' (sometimes ''yellow terror'' or ''yellow specter''){{nbsp}}... blends Western anxieties about sex, racist fears of the alien Other, and the [[Oswald Spengler|Spenglerian]] belief that the West will become outnumbered and enslaved by the East."<ref>{{cite news| last = Leung| first = Wing Fai| title = Perceptions of the East – Yellow Peril: An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear| newspaper = The Irish Times| date = 16 August 2014| url = https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/perceptions-of-the-east-yellow-peril-an-archive-of-anti-asian-fear-1.1895696| access-date = 4 January 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140829175110/http://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/perceptions-of-the-east-yellow-peril-an-archive-of-anti-asian-fear-1.1895696| archive-date = 29 August 2014| url-status = live}}</ref> The academic Gina Marchetti identified the psycho-cultural fear of East Asians as "rooted in medieval fears of [[Genghis Khan]] and the [[Mongol invasion of Europe|Mongol invasions of Europe]] [1236–1291], the Yellow Peril combines racist terror of alien cultures, sexual anxieties, and the belief that the West will be overpowered and enveloped, by the irresistible, dark, occult forces of the East";<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|2}} hence, to oppose Japanese imperial militarism, the West expanded the Yellow Peril ideology to include the Japanese people. Moreover, in the late-19th and early-20th centuries, writers developed the Yellow Peril ''[[literary topos]]'' into codified, racialist motifs of narration, especially in stories and novels of [[ethnic conflict]] in the genres of [[invasion literature]], [[adventure fiction]], and [[science fiction]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>''A Handbook to Literature'', 4th ed. (1980), C. Hugh Holman, Ed., pp. 444–445, 278–279.</ref>

==Origins==
The cultural stereotypes of the Yellow Peril originated in the late 19th century, when Chinese workers legally immigrated to Australia, Canada, the U.S., and New Zealand, where their work ethic inadvertently provoked a backlash against Chinese communities, for agreeing to work for lower wages than did the local white populations. In 1870, the French [[Oriental studies|Orientalist]] and historian [[Ernest Renan]] warned Europeans of Eastern danger to the Western world; yet Renan had meant the [[Russian Empire]] (1721–1917), a country and nation whom the West perceived as more Asiatic than European.<ref name="Tsu, Jiang 2005 p. 80">Tsu, Jiang. ''Failure, Nationalism, and Literature: The Making of Modern Chinese Identity, 1895–1937'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005 p. 80.</ref><ref>* Roger Debury (alias Georges Rossignol), [https://education.persee.fr/doc/revin_1775-6014_1898_num_35_1_3632_t1_0467_0000_2 Un pays de célibataires et de fils uniques], Dentu, 1897 : "Le péril jaune n'est pas immédiat et ne vise pas spécialement la France".
* Thomas Burke, Limehouse Nights, 1916 : ”Some of the boys in the orchestra had often objected to working under a yellօw peril, but he was a skilled musician, and the management kept him on because he drew to the hall the Oriental element of the quarter.”
* J. B. Newman, [https://books.google.com/books?id=pFwAAAAAYAAJ&q=Yellow&pg=RA2-PA145 Beginners' Modern History: From about A.D. 1000], World Book Company, 1922 : ”... there are those who believe in the 'Yellօw Peril,” or the possible danger to the world at large if China were to wake up and make full use of her boundless resources.”</ref>

===Imperial Germany===
[[File:Voelker Europas.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] used the allegorical lithograph ''Peoples of Europe, Guard Your Most Sacred Possessions'' (1895), by [[Hermann Knackfuss]], to promote Yellow Peril ideology as geopolitical justification for European colonialism in China.]]



Since 1870, the Yellow Peril ideology gave [[Reification (Marxism)|concrete form]] to the anti-East Asian racism of Europe and North America.<ref name="Tsu, Jiang 2005 p. 80"/> In central Europe, the Orientalist and diplomat [[Max von Brandt]] advised Kaiser Wilhelm II that Imperial Germany had colonial interests to pursue in China.<ref name="Iikura 2006">Akira, Iikura. "The 'Yellow Peril' and its Influence on German–Japanese Relations", pp. 80–97, in ''Japanese–German Relations, 1895–1945: War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion'', Christian W. Spang and Rolf-Harald Wippich, Eds. London: Routledge, 2006.</ref>{{rp|83}} Hence, the Kaiser used the phrase ''die Gelbe Gefahr'' (The Yellow Peril) to specifically encourage Imperial German interests and justify European colonialism in China.<ref>Rupert, G. G. ''The Yellow Peril or, the Orient versus the Occident'', Union Publishing, 1911. p. 9.</ref>

In 1895, Germany, France, and Russia staged the [[Triple Intervention]] to the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] (17 April 1895), which concluded the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894–1895), in order to compel [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] to surrender their Chinese colonies to the Europeans; that geopolitical gambit became an underlying cause of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] (1904–05).<ref name="Iikura 2006"/>{{rp|83}}<ref name= Kowner>Kowner. ''Historical Dictionary of the Russo–Japanese War'', p. 375.</ref> The Kaiser justified the Triple Intervention to the Japanese empire with [[Racialism|racialist]] calls-to-arms against nonexistent geopolitical dangers of the yellow race against the white race of Western Europe.<ref name="Iikura 2006"/>{{rp|83}}

To justify European [[cultural hegemony]], the Kaiser used the allegorical lithograph ''Peoples of Europe, Guard Your Most Sacred Possessions'' (1895), by [[Hermann Knackfuss]], to communicate his geopolitics to other European monarchs. The lithograph depicts Germany as the leader of Europe,<ref name="Tsu, Jiang 2005 p. 80"/><ref>Kane, Daniel C. introduction to ''Au Japon, Memoirs of a Foreign Correspondent in Japan, Korea, and China, 1892–1894'', de Guerville, A.B. West Lafayette, Ind: Parlor Press, 2009 p. xxix.</ref> personified as a "prehistoric warrior-goddesses being led by the Archangel Michael against the 'yellow peril' from the East", which is represented by "dark cloud of smoke [upon] which rests an eerily calm [[Buddha]], [[Self-immolation#History|wreathed in flame]]".<ref name="Palmer 2009">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_2oJYvNHAQC&pg=PA31 |title=The Bloody White Baron |first=James |last=Palmer |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |location=New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-465-01448-4 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>{{rp|31}}<ref name="Röhl 1996">{{cite book |title=The Kaiser and His Court: Wilhelm II and the Government of Germany |last=Röhl |first=John C. G.|others=translated by Terence F. Cole |author-link=John C. G. Röhl |year= 1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=reprint, illustrated |isbn= 0521565049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZMed6H54tDYC }}</ref>{{rp|203}} Politically, the Knackfuss lithograph allowed Kaiser Wilhelm II to believe he prophesied the imminent [[Ethnic conflict|race war]] that would decide global [[hegemony]] in the 20th century.<ref name="Palmer 2009"/>{{rp|31}}

===United States===
In 1854, as editor of the ''New-York Tribune'', [[Horace Greeley]] published "Chinese Immigration to California" an editorial opinion supporting the popular demand for the exclusion of Chinese workers and people from California.  Without using the term "yellow peril," Greeley compared the arriving "[[coolie]]s" to the African slaves who survived the [[Middle Passage]].  He praised the few Christians among the arriving Chinese and continued:
{{blockquote|But of the remainder, what can be said? They are for the most part an industrious people, forbearing and patient of injury, quiet and peaceable in their habits; say this and you have said all good that can be said of them. They are uncivilized, unclean, and filthy beyond all conception, without any of the higher domestic or social relations; lustful and sensual in their dispositions; every female is a prostitute of the basest order; the first words of English that they learn are terms of obscenity or profanity, and beyond this they care to learn no more. |author=New York Daily Tribune|title=Chinese Immigration to California|source=29 September 1854, p. 4.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1854-09-29|title=Chinese Immigration to California |page=4|work=New-York Tribune|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/21187143/chinese-immigration-to-california-29/|access-date=2020-07-17}}</ref>}}

In 1870s California, despite the [[Burlingame Treaty]] (1868) allowing legal migration of unskilled laborers from China, the native white working-class demanded that the U.S. government cease the immigration of "filthy yellow hordes" of Chinese people who took jobs from native-born white-Americans, especially during an [[Depression (economics)|economic depression]].<ref name="Yang"/>

In Los Angeles, Yellow Peril racism provoked the [[Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871|Chinese massacre of 1871]], wherein 500 white men [[Lynching|lynched]] 20 Chinese men in the Chinatown ghetto. Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, the leader of the [[Workingmen's Party of California]], the [[demagogue]] [[Denis Kearney]], successfully applied Yellow Peril ideology to his politics against the press, capitalists, politicians, and Chinese workers,<ref>McLain, Charles J. ''In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle Against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America'', Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994; p. 79.</ref> and concluded his speeches with the epilogue: "and whatever happens, the Chinese must go!"<ref name="G111">Gyory, Andrew. ''Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act'' Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998; p. 111.</ref><ref name="TchenKuoDylan 2014">Wei Tchen, John Kuo, Dylan Yeats ''Yellow Peril! An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear'' London: Verso, 2014</ref>{{rp|349}} The Chinese people also were specifically subjected to moralistic panics about their use of opium, and how their use made opium popular among white people.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mary Ting Yi Lui |title=The Chinatown Trunk Mystery: Murder, Miscegenation, and Other Dangerous Encounters in Turn-of-the-century New York City. |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages= 27–32}}</ref> As in the case of Irish-Catholic immigrants, the popular press misrepresented Asian peoples as culturally subversive, whose way of life would diminish republicanism in the U.S.; hence, racist political pressure compelled the U.S. government to legislate the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] (1882), which remained the effective immigration-law until 1943.<ref name="Yang" /> The act was the first U.S. immigration law to target a specific ethnicity or nationality.<ref name="Crean">{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2 |edition= |series=New Approaches to International History series |location=London, UK |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=25}} Moreover, following the example of Kaiser Wilhelm II's use of the term in 1895, the popular press in the U.S. adopted the phrase "yellow peril" to identify Japan as a military threat, and to describe the many emigrants from Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rouse |first1=Wendy |title=Jiu-Jitsuing Uncle Sam: The Unmanly Art of Jiu-Jitsu and the Yellow Peril Threat in the Progressive Era United States |journal=Pacific Historical Review |date=November 2015 |volume=84 |issue=4 |page=450 |doi=10.1525/phr.2015.84.4.448 }}</ref>

===Imperial Russia===
[[File:%22The_yellow_peril%22_-_Keppler._LCCN2011645517.jpg|thumb|"The yellow peril", [[Puck (magazine)|Puck]] cartoon, 1905]]

In the late 19th century, with the [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)|Treaty of Saint Petersburg]], the [[Qing dynasty]] (1644–1912) China recovered the eastern portion of the [[Ili River]] basin ([[Jetisu|Zhetysu]]), which Russia had occupied for a decade, since the [[Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)|Dungan Revolt]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Atlas of the 19th Century World, 1783–1914|year=1998|publisher=Barnes & Noble Books|isbn=978-0-7607-3203-8|page=5.19}}</ref><ref>{{cite ECCP|title=Tsêng Chi-tsê}}</ref><ref name="Scott2008">{{cite book|author=David Scott|title=China and the International System, 1840–1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6U_DPS4vfO0C&pg=PA104|date=2008|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7742-7|pages=104–105|access-date=13 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723012734/https://books.google.com/books?id=6U_DPS4vfO0C&pg=PA104|archive-date=23 July 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In that time, the [[mass communication]]s [[Mass media|media]] of the West misrepresented China as an ascendant military power, and applied Yellow Peril ideology to evoke racist fears that China would conquer Western colonies, such as Australia.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Scott|title=China and the International System, 1840–1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6U_DPS4vfO0C&pg=PA111|date=2008|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7742-7|pages=111–112|access-date=13 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705195832/https://books.google.com/books?id=6U_DPS4vfO0C&pg=PA111|archive-date=5 July 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

Imperial Russian writers, notably [[Russian symbolism|symbolists]], expressed fears of a "second Tatar yoke" or a "Mongolian wave" following the lines of "Yellow Peril". [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Vladimir Solovyov]] combined Japan and China into supposed "Pan-Mongolians" who would conquer Russia and Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lim|first=Susanna Soojung|date=2008|title=Between Spiritual Self and Other: Vladimir Solov'ev and the Question of East Asia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27652846|journal=Slavic Review|volume=67|issue=2|pages=321–341|doi=10.1017/S003767790002355X|jstor=27652846|s2cid=164557692|issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnsHyxPZfOIC|title=Russia between East and West : scholarly debates on Eurasianism|date=2007|publisher=Brill|editor=Dmitry Shlapentokh|isbn=978-90-474-1900-6|location=Leiden|pages=28–30|oclc=304239012}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Lim|first=Susanna Soojung|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OdmPXT_RvSYC|title=China and Japan in the Russian imagination, 1685–1922 : to the ends of the Orient|date=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-203-59450-6|location=New York|pages=157–158|oclc=1086509564}}</ref> A similar idea and fear was expressed by [[Dmitry Merezhkovsky|Dmitry Merezhkovskii]] in ''Zheltolitsye pozitivisty'' ("Yellow-Faced Positivists") in 1895 and ''Griadushchii Kham'' ("The Coming Boor") in 1906.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|26–28}}<ref name=":3" />

The works of explorer [[Vladimir Arsenyev|Vladimir K. Arsenev]] also illustrated the ideology of Yellow Peril in Tsarist Russia. The fear continued into the Soviet era where it contributed to the [[Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union|Soviet internal deportation of Koreans]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Jon K.|title=Tsarist continuities in Soviet nationalities policy: A case of Korean territorial autonomy in the Soviet Far East, 1923–1937|url=https://www.academia.edu/17823472|journal=Eurasia Studies Society of Great Britain & Europe Journal|volume=3|pages=30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adamz|first=Zachary M.|date=2017|title=Burnt by the Sun: The Koreans of the Russian Far East. By Jon K. Chang. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2016. x, 273 pages. $68.00.|journal=International Migration Review|language=en|volume=51|issue=3|pages=e35–e36|doi=10.1111/imre.12329|issn=1747-7379|doi-access=free}}</ref> In a 1928 report to the [[Far Eastern Bureau of the Comintern|Dalkrai Bureau]], Arsenev stated "Our colonization is a type of weak wedge on the edge of the primordial land of the yellow peoples." In the earlier 1914 monograph ''The Chinese in the Ussuri Region'', Arsenev characterized people of three East Asian nationalities (Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese) as a singular 'yellow peril', criticizing immigration to Russia and presenting the [[Ussuri]] region as a buffer against "onslaught".<ref name=":1" />

===Canada===
The [[Chinese head tax]] was a fixed fee charged to each [[Chinese people|Chinese]] person entering [[Canada]]. The [[head tax]] was first levied after the [[Parliament of Canada|Canadian parliament]] passed the ''[[Chinese Immigration Act of 1885]]'' and was meant to discourage Chinese people from entering Canada after the completion of the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] (CPR). The tax was abolished by the ''[[Chinese Immigration Act of 1923]]'', which outright prevented all Chinese immigration except for that of business people, clergy, educators, students, and some others.<ref name="JamesMorton">Morton, James. 1974. ''[[In the Sea of Sterile Mountains: The Chinese in British Columbia]]''. Vancouver: J.J. Douglas.</ref>

==Boxer Rebellion==
{{Main|Boxer Rebellion}}

In 1900, the anticolonial [[Boxer Rebellion]] (August 1899 – September 1901) reinforced the racist stereotypes of East Asians as a Yellow Peril to white people. The Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists (called the Boxers in the West) was an anticolonial martial arts organization who blamed the problems of China on the presence of Western colonies in China proper. The Boxers sought to save China by killing Westerners in China and Chinese Christians or Westernized people.<ref name="Preston 2000">Preston, Diana ''The Boxer Rebellion'', New York: Berkley Books, 2000</ref>{{rp|350}} In the early summer of 1900, Prince [[Zaiyi]] allowed the Boxers into Beijing to kill Westerners and Chinese Christians in siege to the foreign legations.<ref name="Preston 2000"/>{{rp|78–79}} Afterward, Qing Commander-in-Chief [[Ronglu]] and [[Yikuang]] (Prince Qing), resisted and expelled the Boxers from Beijing after days of fighting.

===Western perception===
[[File:YellowTerror.jpg|thumb|''The Yellow Terror in all His Glory'', an 1899 editorial cartoon depicting a Chinese man standing over a fallen white woman. The Chinese man represents the anti-colonial [[Boxer movement]] and the woman represents Christian missionaries attacked by Boxers during the [[Boxer Rebellion]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Yellow Terror in all His Glory |url=https://origins.osu.edu/article/image/yellow-terror-all-his-glory |publisher=Ohio State University |access-date=June 13, 2020}}</ref>]]

Most of the victims of the Boxer Rebellion were Chinese Christians, but the massacres of Chinese people were of no interest to the Western world, which demanded Asian blood to avenge the Westerners in China killed by the Boxers.<ref name="A righteous fist">{{cite news | title = A Righteous Fist | newspaper = The Economist | date = 16 December 2010 | url = http://www.economist.com/node/17723014 | access-date = 18 December 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141208053657/http://www.economist.com/node/17723014 | archive-date = 8 December 2014 | url-status = live }}</ref> In response, the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]], the United States, and Imperial Japan, Imperial France, Imperial Russia, and Imperial Germany, Austria–Hungary and Italy formed the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] and dispatched an international military expeditionary force to end the [[Siege of the International Legations]] in Beijing.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

[[File:BoxerSoldiers.jpg|thumb|right|Yellow Peril xenophobia arose from the armed revolt of the [[Boxer movement|Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists]] (the Boxers) to expel all Westerners from China, during the [[Boxer Rebellion]] (August 1899 – September 1901)]]
The Russian press presented the Boxer Rebellion in racialist and religious terms as a cultural war between White Holy Russia and Yellow Pagan China. The press further supported the Yellow Peril apocalypse with quotations from the Sinophobic poems of the philosopher [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Vladimir Solovyov]].<ref name="Eskridge-Kosmach 2014">Eskridge-Kosmach, Alena. "Russian Press and the Ideas of Russia's 'Special Mission in the East' and 'Yellow Peril' ", pp. 661–675, ''[[Journal of Slavic Military Studies]]'', Volume 27, November 2014</ref>{{rp|664}} Likewise, in the press, the aristocracy demanded action against the Asian threat. Prince [[Sergei Nikolaevich Trubetskoy]] urged Imperial Russia and other European monarchies to jointly partition China and to end the Yellow Peril to Christendom.<ref name="Eskridge-Kosmach 2014"/>{{rp|664–665}} Hence, on 3 July 1900, in response to the Boxer Rebellion, Russia expelled the Chinese community (5,000 people) from [[Blagoveshchensk]]. From 4 to 8 July, the Tsarist police, Cossack cavalry, and local vigilantes killed thousands of Chinese people at the Amur River.<ref>Олег Анатольевич Тимофеев (Oleg Anatolyevich Timofeyev). [http://www.igpi.ru/center/lib/hist_tradit/east/china/Timofeyev2.html "Российско-китайские отношения в Приамурье (сер. XIX – нач. XX вв.)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033248/http://www.igpi.ru/center/lib/hist_tradit/east/china/Timofeyev2.html |date=24 September 2015}} ''Russian–Chinese relations in the Amur region, Mid–19th – Early–20th centuries'' Part 2. Blagoveshchensk (2003).</ref>

In the Western world, news of Boxer atrocities against Westerners in China provoked Yellow Peril racism in Europe and North America, where the Chinese' rebellion was perceived as a [[race war]] between the yellow race and the white race. In that vein, ''The Economist'' magazine warned in 1905: <blockquote>The history of the Boxer movement contains abundant warnings, as to the necessity of an attitude of constant vigilance, on the part of the European Powers, when there are any symptoms that a wave of nationalism is about to sweep over the Celestial Empire.<ref name="A righteous fist"/></blockquote>

Sixty-one years later, in 1967, during the [[Cultural Revolution]], [[Red Guards (China)|Red Guards]] shouting "Shā!, Shā!, Shā!" ([[English language|English:]]Kill!, Kill!, Kill!") attacked the British embassy and beat the diplomats. A diplomat remarked that the Boxers had used the same chant.<ref name="A righteous fist"/>

===Colonial vengeance===
[[File:Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany - 1902.jpg|thumb|upright|Kaiser Wilhelm II used Yellow Peril ideology as geopolitical justification for German and European imperialism in China.]]
[[File:China imperialism cartoon.jpg|thumb|upright|''China: The Cake of Kings and ... of Emperors'': An angry [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|Mandarin]] watches [[Queen Victoria]] (Britain), Kaiser Wilhelm II (Germany), [[Nicholas II|Tsar Nicholas II]] (Russia), [[Marianne]] (France), and [[Emperor Meiji]] (Japan) discuss their partitioning of China.<ref>''"En Chine Le gâteau des Rois et ... des Empereurs"'' – Cartoon, [[Le Petit Journal (newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]], 16 January 1898; English: "China – the cake of kings and ... of emperors"</ref>]]

On 27 July 1900, Kaiser Wilhelm II gave the racist ''[[Hun speech|Hunnenrede]]'' (Hun speech) exhorting his soldiers to barbarism and that Imperial German soldiers depart Europe for China and suppress the Boxer Rebellion by acting like "Huns" and [[war crimes|committing atrocities]] against the Chinese (Boxer and civilian):<ref name="Röhl 1996"/>{{rp|203}}

{{blockquote|When you come before the enemy, you must defeat him, pardon will not be given, prisoners will not be taken! Whoever falls into your hands will fall to your sword! Just as a thousand years ago the Huns, under their King Attila, made a name for themselves with their ferocity, which tradition still recalls; so may the name of Germany become known in China in such a way that no Chinaman will ever dare look a German in the eye, even with a squint!<ref name="Röhl 1996"/>{{rp|14}}}}

Fearful of harm to the public image of Imperial Germany, the ''[[Auswärtiges Amt]]'' (Foreign Office) published a redacted version of the Hun Speech that was expurgated of the exhortation to racist barbarism. Annoyed by Foreign Office censorship, the Kaiser published the unexpurgated Hun Speech, which "evoked images of a Crusade and considered the current crisis [the Boxer Rebellion] to amount to a war between Occident and Orient." However, that "elaborate accompanying music, and the new ideology of the Yellow Peril stood in no relation to the actual possibilities and results" of geopolitical policy based upon racist misperception.<ref name="Mombauer 2003">Mombauer, Annika. "Wilhelm II, Waldersee, and the Boxer Rebellion". pp. 91–118, ''The Kaiser'', Annika Mombauer and [[Wilhelm Deist]], Eds. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0521824088}}</ref>{{rp|96}}

====Exhortation to barbarism====
The Kaiser ordered the expedition-commander, Field Marshal [[Alfred von Waldersee]], to behave barbarously because the Chinese were "by nature, cowardly, like a dog, but also deceitful".<ref name="Mombauer 2003"/>{{rp|99}} In that time, the Kaiser's best friend, [[Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg]], wrote to another friend that the Kaiser wanted to raze Beijing and kill the populace to avenge the murder of Baron [[Clemens von Ketteler]], Imperial Germany's minister to China.<ref name="Röhl 1996"/>{{rp|13}} Only the Eight-Nation Alliance's refusal of barbarism to resolve the siege of the legations saved{{CN|date=October 2024}} the Chinese populace of Beijing from the massacre recommended by Imperial Germany.<ref name="Röhl 1996"/>{{rp|13}} In August 1900, an international military force of Russian, Japanese, British, French, and American soldiers captured Beijing before the German force had arrived at the city.<ref name="Mombauer 2003"/>{{rp|107}}

====Praxis of barbarism====
The eight-nation alliance sacked Beijing in vengeance for the Boxer Rebellion; the magnitude of the rape, pillaging and burning indicated "a sense that the Chinese were less than human" to the Western powers.<ref name="Preston 2000"/>{{rp|286}} About the sacking of the city, an Australian in China stated: "The future of the Chinese is a fearful problem. Look at the frightful sights one sees in the streets of Peking{{nbsp}}... See the filthy, tattered rags they wrap around them. Smell them as they pass. Hear of their nameless immorality. Witness their shameless indecency, and picture them among your own people—Ugh! It makes you shudder!"<ref name="Preston 2000"/>{{rp|350}}

British admiral [[Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes|Roger Keyes]] recalled: "Every Chinaman{{nbsp}}... was treated as a Boxer, by the Russian and French troops, and the slaughter of men, women, and children, in retaliation, was revolting".<ref name="Preston 2000"/>{{rp|284}} The American missionary [[Luella Miner]] reported that "the conduct of the Russian soldiers is ''atrocious'', the French are not much better, and the Japanese are looting and burning without mercy. Women and girls, by the hundreds, have committed suicide to escape a worse fate at the hands of Russian and Japanese brutes."<ref name="Preston 2000"/>{{rp|284}}

From contemporary Western observers, German, Russian, and Japanese troops received the greatest criticism for their ruthlessness and willingness to wantonly execute Chinese of all ages and backgrounds, sometimes by burning and killing entire village populations.<ref>Cohen, Paul A. ''History in Three Keys: The Boxers As Event, Experience, and Myth'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|0231106505}} (1997), p. 185</ref> The Americans and British paid General [[Yuan Shikai]] and his army (the [[New Army|Right Division]]) to help the Eight Nation Alliance suppress the Boxers. Yuan's forces killed tens of thousands of people in their anti-Boxer campaign in [[Zhili Province]] and [[Shandong]] after the Alliance captured Beijing.<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Warriors of the Rising Sun: A History of the Japanese Military|author=Edgerton, R.B.|date=1997|publisher=Norton|isbn=978-0393040852|url=https://archive.org/details/warriorsofrising00edge|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/warriorsofrising00edge/page/94 94]|access-date=18 June 2017}}</ref> The British journalist George Lynch said that "there are things that I must not write, and that may not be printed in England, which would seem to show that this Western civilization of ours is merely a veneer over savagery".<ref name="Preston 2000"/>{{rp|285}}

The expedition of German field marshal Waldersee arrived in China on 27 September 1900, after the military defeat of the Boxer Rebellion by the Eight-Nation Alliance, yet he launched 75 punitive raids into northern China to search for and destroy the remaining Boxers. The German soldiers killed more peasants than Boxer guerrillas because by that time, the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists (the Boxers) had posed no threat.<ref name="Mombauer 2003"/>{{rp|109}} On 19 November 1900, at the ''Reichstag'', the German Social Democrat politician [[August Bebel]] criticized the Kaiser's attack upon China as shameful to Germany:

{{blockquote|No, this is no crusade, no holy war; it is a very ordinary war of conquest{{nbsp}}... A campaign of revenge as barbaric as has never been seen in the last centuries, and not often at all in History{{nbsp}}... not even with the Huns, not even with the Vandals{{nbsp}}... That is not a match for what the German and other troops of foreign powers, together with the Japanese troops, have done in China.<ref name="Mombauer 2003"/>{{rp|97}}}}

==Cultural fear==
[[Image:HSChamberlain cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|In ''The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century'' (1899), [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain]] provided racialist ideology for [[Nazi Germany]] (1933–1945).]]

The political praxis of Yellow Peril racism calls for apolitical racial unity among the White peoples of the world. To resolve a contemporary problem (economic, social, political) the racialist politician calls for White unity against the nonwhite [[Other (philosophy)|Other]] who threatens Western civilization from distant Asia. Despite the Western powers' military defeat of the anticolonial Boxer Rebellion, Yellow Peril fear of Chinese nationalism became a cultural factor among white people: That "the Chinese race" mean to invade, vanquish, and subjugate Christian civilization in the Western world.<ref>Preston (2000) pp. 350–351</ref>

In July 1900, the [[Völkisch movement|''Völkisch'' movement]] intellectual [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain]], the "Evangelist of Race", gave his racialist perspective of the cultural meaning of the [[Boer War]] (1899–1902) in relation to the cultural meaning of the Boxer Rebellion: "One thing I can clearly see, that is, that it is criminal for Englishmen and Dutchmen to go on murdering each other, for all sorts of sophisticated reasons, while the Great Yellow Danger overshadows us white men, and threatens destruction."<ref name="Field 1981">Field, Geoffrey. ''The Evangelist of Race: The Germanic Vision of Houston Stewart Chamberlain'', New York:Columbia University Press (1981) p. 357.</ref> In the book ''[[The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century]]'' (1899), Chamberlain provided the racist ideology for [[Pan-Germanism]] and the ''Völkisch'' movements of the early 20th century, which greatly influenced the [[racial policy of Nazi Germany]].<ref>{{cite book | last= Mitcham | first = Samuel W. Jr. | title = Why Hitler?: The Genesis of the Nazi Reich | publisher = Praeger | location = Westport, Connecticut | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-0-275-95485-7 | page=82}}; citing Forman, James D. (1978) ''Nazism'', New York. p. 14</ref>

==Racial annihilation==
The Austrian philosopher [[Christian von Ehrenfels]] was fixated with the fear of the "Yellow Peril", and believed that Asian peoples were a deadly threat to European civilization. Ehrenfels wrote if nothing was done to stop the rise of China, that "if there is no change in current practice, this will lead to the annihilation of the white race by the yellow race". In response to this perceived threat, he wrote several radical proposals.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Weitz |first1=E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0sBDgAAQBAJ&dq=Weikart%2C+Richard+%28May+2003%29.+%22Progress+through+Racial+Extermination%3A+Social+Darwinism%2C+Eugenics%2C+and+Pacifism+in+Germany%2C+1860-1918%22.+German+Studies+Review.&pg=PA138 |title=Fascism and Neofascism: Critical Writings on the Radical Right in Europe |last2=Fenner |first2=A. |date=2016-09-27 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-04122-7 |language=en}}</ref>

===The Darwinian threat===
The Yellow Peril [[racialism]] of von Ehrenfels proposed that the Western world and the Eastern world were in a [[Social Darwinism|Darwinian racial struggle]] for domination of the planet, which the yellow race was winning.<ref name="Dickinson 2002">{{cite journal | last=Dickinson |first=Edward Ross |title=Sex, Masculinity, and the 'Yellow Peril': Christian von Ehrenfels' Program for a Revision of the European Sexual Order, 1902–1910 |pages=255–284 |journal=[[German Studies Review]] |volume=25 |issue=2 |year=2002 |doi=10.2307/1432992 |pmid=20373550 |jstor=1432992}}</ref>{{rp|258}} That the Chinese were an inferior race of people whose [[Orientalism (book)|Oriental culture]] lacked "all potentialities{{nbsp}}... determination, initiative, productivity, invention, and organizational talent" supposedly innate to the white cultures of the West.<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|263}} Nonetheless, despite having [[Dehumanization|dehumanized]] the Chinese into an [[Essentialism|essentialist stereotype]] of physically listless and mindless Asians, von Ehrenfels's cultural [[cognitive dissonance]] allowed praising Japan as a first-rate [[Power projection|imperial military power]] whose inevitable conquest of continental China would produce [[Eugenics|improved breeds]] of Chinese people. That the Japanese' selective breeding with "genetically superior" Chinese women would engender a race of "healthy, sly, cunning coolies", because the Chinese are virtuosi of sexual reproduction.<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|263}} The gist of von Ehrenfels's [[Nihilism|nihilistic]] racism was that Asian conquest of the West equaled white racial annihilation; Continental Europe subjugated by a genetically superior Sino–Japanese army consequent to a race war that the Western world would fail to thwart or win.<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|263}}

===Polygamous patriarchy===
To resolve the population imbalance between the Eastern and the West in favor of White people, von Ehrenfels proposed radical changes to the [[mores]] ([[Social norm|social]] and [[Sexual norm|sexual]] norms) of the Christian West. Eliminating [[monogamy]] as a hindrance to global [[white supremacy]], for limiting a genetically superior White man to father children with only one woman; because [[polygamy]] gives the yellow race greater reproductive advantage, for permitting a genetically superior Asian man to father children with many women.<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|258–261}} Therefore, the [[State (polity)|state]] would control human sexuality through polygamy, to ensure the continual procreation of genetically and numerically superior populations of White people.

In such a patriarchal society, only high-status white men of known genetic reliability would have the legal right to reproduce, with the number of reproductive wives he can afford, and so ensure that only the "social winners" reproduce, within their racial caste.<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|261–262}} Despite such radical [[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] of men's sexual behavior, white women remained monogamous by law; their lives dedicated to the breeding functions of wife and mother.<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|261–262}} The fertile women would reside and live their daily lives in communal barracks, where they collectively rear their many children. To fulfill her reproductive obligations to the state, each woman is assigned a husband only for reproductive sexual intercourse.<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|261–262}} Ehrenfels's social engineering for worldwide white supremacy eliminates [[Romance (love)|romantic love]] (marriage) from sexual intercourse, and thus reduces man–woman sexual relations to a transaction of mechanistic reproduction.<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|262}}

===Race war===
To end what he perceived as the threat of the Yellow Peril to the Western world, von Ehrenfels proposed [[White nationalism|white racial unity]] among the nations of the West, in order to jointly prosecute a [[preemptive war]] of [[ethnic conflict]]s to conquer Asia, before it became militarily infeasible. Then establish a worldwide racial hierarchy organized as an hereditary [[Caste|caste system]], headed by the [[White people|white race]] in each conquered country of Asia.<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|264}} That an [[oligarchy]] of the [[Nordic race|Aryan white people]] would form, populate, and lead the racial castes of the [[ruling class]], the military forces, and the [[intelligentsia]]; and that in each conquered country, the Yellow and the Black races would be [[Slavery|slaves]], the [[Exploitation of labour|economic base]] of the worldwide racial hierarchy.<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|264}}

The Aryan society that von Ehrenfels proposed in the early 20th century, would be in the far future of the Western world, realized after defeating the Yellow Peril and the other races for control of the Earth, because "the Aryan will only respond to the imperative of sexual reform when the waves of the Mongolian tide are lapping around his neck".<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|263}} As a racialist, von Ehrenfels characterized the Japanese military victory in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] (1905) as an Asian victory against the white peoples of the Christian West, a cultural failure which indicated "the absolute necessity of a radical, sexual reform for the continued existence of the Western races of man{{nbsp}}... [The matter of White racial survival] has been raised from the level of discussion to the level of a [[Scientific racism|scientifically]] proven fact".<ref name="Dickinson 2002"/>{{rp|263}}

==Xenophobia and racism==

===Germany and Russia===
From 1895, Kaiser Wilhelm used Yellow Peril ideology to portray Imperial Germany as defender of the West against conquest from the East.<ref name="Herwig 1997">Herwig, Holger. "Review: ''Deutschland, Amerika und die "Gelbe Gefahr". Zur Karriere eines Schlagworts in der Groβen Politik 1905–1917'', by Ute Mehnert" pp. 210–211, ''International History Review'', Volume 19, Issue No. 1, February 1997. {{JSTOR|40108116}}</ref>{{rp|210}} In pursuing ''[[Weltpolitik]]'' policies meant to establish Germany as the dominant empire, the Kaiser manipulated his own government officials, public opinion, and other monarchs.<ref name="Barth page 264">{{cite journal |last=Barth |first=Gunther |title=Review of ''Germany, America, and the 'Yellow Peril': The Career of a Slogan in International Politics, 1905–1917'', by Ute Mehnert |page=264 |journal=The Journal of American History |volume=84 |issue=1 |year=1997 |doi=10.2307/2952828 |jstor=2952828}}</ref> In a letter to Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia]], the Kaiser said: "It is clearly the great task of the future for Russia to cultivate the Asian continent, and defend Europe from the inroads of the Great Yellow Race".<ref name="Palmer 2009"/>{{rp|31}} In ''The Bloody White Baron'' (2009), the historian James Palmer explains the 19th-century socio-cultural background from which Yellow Peril ideology originated and flourished:

{{blockquote|The 1890s had spawned in the West the specter of the "Yellow Peril", the rise to world dominance of the Asian peoples. The evidence cited was Asian population growth, immigration to the West (America and Australia in particular), and increased Chinese settlement along the Russian border. These demographic and political fears were accompanied by a vague and ominous dread of the mysterious powers supposedly possessed by the initiates of Eastern religions. There is a striking German picture of the 1890s, depicting the dream that inspired Kaiser Wilhelm II to coin the term "Yellow Peril", that shows the union of these ideas. It depicts the nations of Europe, personified as heroic, but vulnerable, female figures guarded by the Archangel Michael, gazing apprehensively towards a dark cloud of smoke in the East, in which rests an eerily calm Buddha, wreathed in flame{{nbsp}}...<br>

Combined with this was a sense of the slow sinking of the ''Abendland'', the "Evening Land" of the West. This would be put most powerfully, by thinkers such as Oswald Spengler in ''[[The Decline of the West]]'' (1918) and the Prussian philosopher [[Arthur Moeller van den Bruck|Moeller van den Bruck]], a Russophone obsessed with the coming rise of the East. Both called for Germany to join the "young nations" of Asia through the adoption of such supposedly Asiatic practices as collectivism, "inner barbarism", and despotic leadership. The identification of Russia with Asia would eventually overwhelm such sympathies, instead leading to a more-or-less straightforward association of Germany with the values of "The West", against the "Asiatic barbarism" of Russia. That was most obvious during the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi era]] [1933–1945], when virtually every piece of anti–Russian propaganda talked of the "Asiatic millions" or "Mongolian hordes", which threatened to over-run Europe, but the identification of the Russians as Asian, especially as ''Mongolian'', continued well into the [[Cold War]] era [1917–1991].<ref name="Palmer 2009"/>{{rp|30–31}}}}

[[File:HedwigManuscriptLiegnitz b.jpg|thumb|right|The European collective memory of the Yellow Peril includes the Mongols' display of the severed head of Duke [[Henry II the Pious|Henry II of Silesia]], in Legnica.]]
As his cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm knew that Tsar Nicholas shared his anti-Asian racism and believed he could persuade the Tsar to abrogate the [[Franco-Russian Alliance]] (1894) and then to form a German–Russian alliance against Britain.<ref name="McLean 2003">McLean, Roderick. "Dreams of a German Europe: Wilhelm II and the Treaty of Björkö of 1905" pp. 119–141, in ''The Kaiser'', Annika Mombauer and Wilhelm Deist, Eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0521824088}}</ref>{{rp|120–123}} In manipulative pursuit of Imperial German ''Weltpolitik'' "Wilhelm II's deliberate use of the 'yellow peril' slogan was more than a personal idiosyncrasy, and fitted into the general pattern of German foreign policy under his reign, i.e. to encourage Russia's Far Eastern adventures, and later to sow discord, between the United States and Japan. Not the substance, but only the form, of Wilhelm II's 'yellow peril' propaganda disturbed the official policy of the Wilhelmstrasse."<ref>Fiebig–von Hase, Ragnhld. "The Uses of 'friendship': The 'personal regime' of Wilhelm II and Theodore Roosevelt" pp. 143–175, in ''The Kaiser'', Annika Mommbauer and Wilhelm Deist, Eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 p. 165.</ref>

====Mongols in Europe====
In the 19th century, the racial and cultural stereotypes of Yellow Peril ideology colored German perceptions of Russia as a nation more Asiatic than European.<ref name="Palmer 2009"/>{{rp|31}} The European folk memory of the 13th-century [[Mongol invasion of Europe]] made the word ''Mongol'' a cultural synonym for the "Asian culture of cruelty and insatiable appetite for conquest", which was especially personified by [[Genghis Khan]], leader of the [[Orda (organization)|Orda]], the Mongol Horde.<ref name="Palmer 2009"/>{{rp|57–58}}

Despite that justifying historical background, Yellow Peril racism was not universally accepted in the societies of Europe. French intellectual [[Anatole France]] said that Yellow Peril ideology was to be expected from a racist man such as the Kaiser. Inverting the racist premise of Asian invasion, France showed that European imperialism in Asia and Africa indicated that the European White Peril was the true threat to the world.<ref name="Tsu, Jiang 2005 p. 80"/> In his essay "The Bogey of the Yellow Peril" (1904), the British journalist [[Demetrius Charles Boulger]] said the Yellow Peril was racist hysteria for popular consumption.<ref name="Tsu, Jiang 2005 p. 80"/> Asian geopolitical dominance of the world is "the prospect, placed before the uninstructed reading public, is a revival of the Hun and Mongol terrors, and the names of [[Attila]] and Genghis are set out in the largest type to create feelings of apprehension. The reader is assured, in the most positive manner, that this is the doing of the enterprising nation of Japan".<ref name="Iikura 2003">Iikura, Akira. "The Anglo–Japanese Alliance and the Question of Race", pp. 222–234, in ''The Anglo–Japanese Alliance, 1902–1922'', Philips O'Brian, Ed. London: Routledge, 2003.</ref>{{rp|225}} Throughout the successful imperial intrigues facilitated by Germany's Yellow Peril ideology, the Kaiser's true geopolitical target was Britain.<ref name="Iikura 2003"/>{{rp|225}}

===United Kingdom===
Though Chinese civilization was admired in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|18th century Britain]], by the 19th century, the [[Opium Wars]] led to the creation of racialist stereotypes of the Chinese among the British public, who cast the Chinese "as a threatening, expansionist foe" and a corrupt and depraved people.<ref name="French">{{cite news | last = French | first = Philip | author-link = Philip French | title = The Yellow Peril: Dr Fu Manchu & the Rise of Chinaphobia | work = The Observer | date = 20 October 2014 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/20/yellow-peril-fu-manchu-rise-chinaphobia-review-factors-fear-china | access-date = 4 January 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141225093450/http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/20/yellow-peril-fu-manchu-rise-chinaphobia-review-factors-fear-china | archive-date = 25 December 2014 | url-status = live }}</ref> Still, there were exceptions to popular racism of the Yellow Peril. In May 1890, [[William Ewart Gladstone]] criticized anti-Chinese immigration laws in Australia for penalizing their virtues of hard work (diligence, thrift and integrity), instead of penalizing their vices (gambling and opium smoking).<ref name="Auerbach 2009"/>{{rp|25}}

====Cultural temper====
In 1904, in a meeting about the Russo-Japanese War, King [[Edward VII]] heard the Kaiser complain that the Yellow Peril is "the greatest peril menacing{{nbsp}}... Christendom and European civilization. If the Russians went on giving ground, the yellow race would, in twenty years time, be in Moscow and Posen".<ref name="MacDonogh, Giles page 277">MacDonogh, Giles. ''The Last Kaiser'', New York:St. Martin's Press, 2003. p. 277.</ref> The Kaiser criticized the British for siding with Japan against Russia, and said that "race treason" was the motive. King Edward said he "could not see it. The Japanese were an intelligent, brave and chivalrous nation, quite as civilized as the Europeans, from whom they only differed by the pigmentation of their skin".<ref name="MacDonogh, Giles page 277"/>

[[File:King Edward VII Vanity Fair 19 June 1902.jpg|thumb|upright|Unlike the Kaiser of Germany, King Edward VII of the United Kingdom did not see the Japanese as the Yellow Peril in the Russo–Japanese War. (1904–05)]]

The first British usage of the Yellow Peril phrase was in the ''Daily News'' (21 July 1900) report describing the [[Boxer Rebellion]] as "the yellow peril in its most serious form".<ref name="French"/> In that time, British [[Sinophobia]], the fear of Chinese people, did not include all Asians, because Britain had sided with Japan during the Russo–Japanese War, whilst France and Germany supported Russia;<ref name="Jukes 2002">Jukes, Geoffrey. ''The Russo–Japanese War 1904–1905'', London: Osprey 2002.</ref>{{rp|91}} whereas the reports of Captain [[William Pakenham (Royal Navy officer)|William Pakenham]] "tended to depict Russia as his enemy, not just Japan's".<ref name="Jukes 2002"/>{{rp|91}}

About pervasive Sinophobia in Western culture, in ''The Yellow Peril: Dr Fu Manchu & the Rise of Chinaphobia'' (2014), historian Christopher Frayling noted:
{{blockquote|In the early decades of the 20th century, Britain buzzed with Sinophobia. Respectable middle-class magazines, tabloids and comics, alike, spread stories of ruthless Chinese ambitions to destroy the West. The Chinese master-criminal (with his "crafty yellow face twisted by a thin-lipped grin", dreaming of world domination) had become a staple of children's publications.

In 1911, "The Chinese in England: A Growing National Problem" an article distributed around the Home Office, warned of "a vast and convulsive Armageddon to determine who is to be the master of the world, the white or yellow man." After the First World War, cinemas, theater, novels, and newspapers broadcast visions of the "Yellow Peril" machinating to corrupt white society. In March 1929, the ''chargé d'affaires'', at London's Chinese legation, complained that no fewer than five plays, showing in the West End, depicted Chinese people in "a vicious and objectionable form".<ref name="Lowell">{{cite news| last = Lowell| first = Julia| title = The Yellow Peril: Dr Fu Manchu & the Rise of Chinaphobia| work = The Guardian| date = 30 October 2014| url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/30/yellow-peril-dr-fu-manchu-rise-of-chinaphobia-christopher-frayling-review| access-date = 4 January 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150105002808/http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/30/yellow-peril-dr-fu-manchu-rise-of-chinaphobia-christopher-frayling-review| archive-date = 5 January 2015| url-status = live}}</ref>}}

====Moralistic panic====
The [[Limehouse]] district in London (which had a large Chinese element) was portrayed in the British popular imagination as a center of moral depravity and vice, i.e. sexual prostitution, opium smoking, and gambling.<ref name="French"/><ref name="Lowell"/> According to historian Anne Witchard, many Londoners believed the British Chinese community, including [[Triad (organized crime)|Triad]] gangsters, "were abducting young English women to sell into [[white slavery]]", a fate "worse than death" in Western popular culture.<ref name="Witchard">{{cite news| last = Witchard| first = Anne| title = Writing China: Anne Witchard on 'England's Yellow Peril'| work = Wall Street Journal| date = 13 November 2014| url = https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2014/11/13/writing-china-anne-witchard-on-englands-yellow-peril/| access-date = 4 January 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150105014903/http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2014/11/13/writing-china-anne-witchard-on-englands-yellow-peril/| archive-date = 5 January 2015| url-status = live}}</ref> In 1914, at the start of the First World War, the [[Defense of the Realm Act]] was amended to include the smoking of opium as proof of "moral depravity" that merited deportation, a legal pretext for deporting members of the Chinese community to China.<ref name="Witchard"/> This anti-Chinese [[moral panic]] derived in part from the social reality that British women were becoming more financially independent by way of war-production jobs, which allowed them (among other things) greater sexual freedom, a cultural threat to Britain's patriarchal society.<ref name="blog.lareviewofbooks.org">{{cite news | last = Witchard | first = Anne | title = Yellow Peril: Sinophobia and the Great War: a Q&A with Dr. Anne Witchard | work = Los Angeles Times | date = 4 February 2015 | url = http://blog.lareviewofbooks.org/chinablog/yellow-peril-sinophobia-great-war-qa-dr-anne-witchard/ | access-date = 19 April 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150403125205/http://blog.lareviewofbooks.org/chinablog/yellow-peril-sinophobia-great-war-qa-dr-anne-witchard/ | archive-date = 3 April 2015 | url-status = live }}</ref> Witchard noted that stories of "working-class girls consorting with “Chinamen” in Limehouse" and "debutantes leading officers astray in Soho drinking dens" contributed to the anti-Chinese moral panic.<ref name="blog.lareviewofbooks.org"/>

===United States===

====19th century====
In the U.S., Yellow Peril xenophobia was legalized with the [[Page Act of 1875]], the [[Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)|Chinese Exclusion Act]] of 1882, and the [[Geary Act]] of 1892. The Chinese Exclusion Act replaced the [[Burlingame Treaty]] (1868), which had encouraged Chinese migration, and provided that "citizens of the United States in China, of every religious persuasion, and Chinese subjects, in the United States, shall enjoy entire liberty of conscience, and shall be exempt from all disability or persecution, on account of their religious faith or worship, in either country", withholding only the right of naturalized citizenship.

In [[Tombstone, Arizona]], sheriff [[Johnny Behan]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hornung|first1=Chuck|date=2016|title=Wyatt Earp's Cow-Boy Campaign: The Bloody Restoration of Law and Order Along the Mexican Border, 1882|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gPcWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|page=26|publisher=McFarland & Company|isbn=978-1476663449}}</ref> and mayor [[John Clum]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McCormack|first1=Kara|date=2013|title=Imagining "the Town too Tough to Die": Tourism, Preservation, and History in Tombstone, Arizona|journal=American Studies Etds|url=https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/amst_etds/29|page=39|publisher=University of New Mexico}}</ref> organized the "Anti-Chinese League" in 1880,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tombstonetraveltips.com/us-immigration-1800s.html|title=US Immigration 1800s|publisher=Picture Rocks Networking|website=TombstoneTravelTips|date=13 April 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=131096|title=Hoptown Chinese Section 1879|publisher=Historical Marker Database}}</ref> which was reorganized into the "Anti-Chinese Secret Society of Cochise County" in 1886.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clements|first1=Eric L.|date=Oct 1, 2014|title=After The Boom In Tombstone And Jerome, Arizona: Decline In Western Resource Towns|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kCuVDwAAQBAJ|page=135|publisher=University of Nevada Press|isbn=978-0874175813}}</ref> In 1880, the Yellow Peril pogrom of Denver featured the lynching of a Chinese man and the destruction of Denver's Chinatown ghetto.<ref name="Infamous Lynchings">{{cite web | title = Infamous Lynchings | date = 20 October 2014 | url = http://www.americanlynching.com/infamous-old.html | access-date = 4 January 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170520045708/http://www.americanlynching.com/infamous-old.html | archive-date = 20 May 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref> In 1885, the [[Rock Springs massacre]] of 28 miners destroyed a Wyoming Chinese community.<ref name="HarpWeek">{{cite web | title = The Anti-Chinese Hysteria of 1885–1886 | work = The Chinese-American Experience 1857–1892 | publisher = HarpWeek | url = http://immigrants.harpweek.com/ChineseAmericans/2KeyIssues/TheAntiChineseHysteria.htm | access-date = 4 January 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060819151026/http://immigrants.harpweek.com/ChineseAmericans/2KeyIssues/TheAntiChineseHysteria.htm | archive-date = 19 August 2006 | url-status = live }}</ref> In [[Washington Territory]], Yellow Peril fear provoked the [[Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885]]; the arson of the Seattle Chinatown; and the [[Tacoma riot of 1885]], by which the local white inhabitants expelled the Chinese community from their towns.<ref name="HarpWeek"/> In Seattle, the [[Knights of Labor]] expelled 200 Chinese people with the [[Seattle riot of 1886]]. In Oregon, 34 Chinese gold miners were ambushed, robbed, and killed in the [[Hells Canyon Massacre]] (1887). Moreover, concerning the experience of being Chinese in the 19th-century U.S., in the essay "A Chinese View of the Statue of Liberty" (1885), Sauum Song Bo said:

{{blockquote|Seeing that the heading is an appeal to American citizens, to their love of country and liberty, I feel my countrymen, and myself, are honored in being thus appealed to, as citizens in the cause of liberty. But the word liberty makes me think of the fact that this country is a land of liberty for men of all nations, except the Chinese. I consider it an insult to us Chinese to call on us to contribute towards building, in this land, a pedestal for a statue of liberty. That statue represents Liberty holding a torch, which lights the passage of those of all nations who come into this country. But are Chinese allowed to come? As for the Chinese who are here, are they allowed to enjoy liberty as men of all other nationalities enjoy it? Are they allowed to go about everywhere free from insults, abuse, assaults, wrongs and injuries from which men of other nationalities are free?<ref>Bo, Sauum Song. "A Chinese View of the Statue of Liberty", pp. 232–233, ''Yellow Peril!: An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear'', edited by John Kuo Wei Tchen, John Kuo and Dylan Yeats, London:Verso, 2014. p. 232.</ref>}}

====20th century====
[[File:Map showing Asiatic zone prescribed in section three of Immigration Act, the natives of which are excluded from the United State, with certain exceptions.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|To contain the Yellow Peril, the Immigration Act of 1917 established the Asiatic Barred Zone from which the U.S. admitted no immigrants.]]

Under [[nativism (politics)|nativist]] political pressure, the [[Immigration Act of 1917]] established an Asian Barred Zone of countries from which immigration to the U.S. was forbidden.  The [[Cable Act of 1922]] (Married Women's Independent Nationality Act) guaranteed citizenship to independent women unless they were married to a nonwhite alien ineligible for naturalization.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1998/summer/women-and-naturalization-1.html|title=Prologue: Selected Articles|publisher=Archives.gov|access-date=17 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703215911/https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1998/summer/women-and-naturalization-1.html|archive-date=3 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>  Asian men and women were excluded from American citizenship except for natural born citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.si.edu/Curriculum%20Guide-Final/teacherhistory.htm|title=For Teacher – An Introduction to Asian American History|publisher=Apa.si.edu|date=19 February 1942|access-date=17 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116191741/http://www.apa.si.edu/Curriculum%20Guide-Final/teacherhistory.htm|archive-date=16 January 2009|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/asian_voices/asian_timeline.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422015759/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/asian_voices/asian_timeline.cfm|archive-date=22 April 2009|title=Timeline of Asian American History|website=Digital History}}</ref>

In practice, the Cable Act of 1922 reversed some racial exclusions, and granted independent woman citizenship exclusively to women married to white men.  Analogously, the Cable Act allowed the government to revoke the citizenship of an American white woman married an Asian man.  The law was formally challenged before the Supreme Court, with the case of ''[[Takao Ozawa v. United States]]'' (1922), whereby a Japanese American man tried to demonstrate that the Japanese people are a white race eligible for naturalized American citizenship. The Court ruled that the Japanese are not white people; two years later, the [[National Origins Quota of 1924]] specifically excluded the Japanese from entering the US and from American citizenship.

====Ethnic national character====
[[File:Yellow peril rupert.jpg|thumb|upright|The religious racialism of ''The Yellow Peril'' (1911, 3rd ed.), by [[G. G. Rupert]], proposed that Russia would unite the Oriental races to invade, conquer, and subjugate Christian civilization in the Western world.]]

To "preserve the ideal of American homogeneity", the [[Emergency Quota Act]] of 1921 (numeric limits) and the [[Immigration Act of 1924]] (fewer southern and eastern Europeans) restricted admission to the United States according to the skin color and the [[race (human categorization)|race]] of the immigrant.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act | author=U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian | title=The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act) | access-date=13 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116004715/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act | archive-date=16 November 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref>  In practice, the Emergency Quota Act used outdated census data to determine the number of colored immigrants to admit to the U.S. To protect WASP ethnic supremacy (social, economic, political) in the 20th century, the Immigration Act of 1924 used the twenty-year-old census of 1890, because its 19th-century demographic-group percentages favored more admissions of WASP immigrants from western and northern Europe, and fewer admissions of colored immigrants from Asia and southern and eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act | author=U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian | title=The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act) | access-date=13 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116004715/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act | archive-date=16 November 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref>

To ensure that the immigration of colored peoples did not change the WASP national character of the United States, the [[National Origins Formula]] (1921–1965) meant to maintain the ''status quo'' percentages of "[[ethnicity|ethnic populations]]" in lesser proportion to the existing white populations; thus, the yearly quota allowed only 150,000 [[People of Color]] into the U.S.A. In the event, the national-origins Formula was voided and repealed with the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act | author=U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian | title=The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act) | access-date=13 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116004715/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act | archive-date=16 November 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref>

====Eugenic apocalypse====
[[File:Dust jacket, first edition of The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Eugenics|eugenic racialism]] proposed in ''[[The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy]]'' (1920), by [[Lothrop Stoddard]], presents either China or Japan as uniting the Oriental races to invade, conquer, and subjugate the white civilizations of the Western world.]]

[[Eugenics|Eugenicists]] used the Yellow Peril to misrepresent the U.S. as an exclusively WASP nation threatened by [[miscegenation]] with the Asian Other by expressing their racism with biological language (infection, disease, decay) and imagery of penetration (wounds and sores) of the white body.<ref name="Shimakawa 2014">Shimakawa, Karen. "National Abjection" pp. 236–241, ''Yellow Peril! An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear'', John Kuo Wei Tchen and Dylan Yeats, Eds. London: Verso, 2014</ref>{{rp|237–238}} In ''The Yellow Peril; or, Orient vs. Occident'' (1911), the [[Eschatology|end time]] evangelist [[G. G. Rupert]] said that Russia would unite the colored races to facilitate the [[Orientalism (book)|Oriental]] invasion, conquest, and subjugation of the West; said white supremacy is in the Christian [[eschatology]] of verse 16:12 in the [[Book of Revelation]]: "Then the sixth angel poured out his bowl on the great Euphrates River, and it dried up so that the kings from the east could march their armies toward the west without hindrance".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=revelation%2016:12-16:12&version=50|title=Revelation 16:12 (New King James Version)|publisher=BibleGateway.com|access-date=5 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118114642/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=revelation%2016:12-16:12&version=50|archive-date=18 November 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> As an Old-Testament Christian, Rupert believed the racialist doctrine of [[British Israelism]], and said that the Yellow Peril from China, India, Japan, and Korea, were attacking Britain and the US, but that the Christian God himself would halt the Asian conquest of the Western world.<ref name="NYU">{{cite web|url=http://boas.wordpress.com/2006/08/19/nyus-archivist-of-the-yellow-peril-exhibit/|title=NYU's 'Archivist of the Yellow Peril' Exhibit|publisher=Boas Blog|date=19 August 2006|access-date=5 November 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013201844/http://boas.wordpress.com/2006/08/19/nyus-archivist-of-the-yellow-peril-exhibit/|archive-date=13 October 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

In ''The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy'' (1920), the eugenicist Lothrop Stoddard said that either China or Japan would unite the colored peoples of Asia and lead them to destroy white supremacy in the Western world, and that the Asian conquest of the world began with the Japanese victory in the Russo–Japanese War (1905). As a [[white supremacist]], Stoddard presented his racism with Biblical language and catastrophic imagery depicting a rising tide of colored people meaning to invade, conquer, and subjugate the white race.<ref>Stoddard, Lothrop. "The Rising Tide of Color" pp. 216–217, ''Yellow Peril! An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear'', John Kuo Wei Tchen & Dylan Yeats, Eds. London:Verso, 2014.</ref>

====Political opposition====
In that cultural vein, the phrase "yellow peril" was common editorial usage in the newspapers of publisher [[William Randolph Hearst]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,746032,00.html | magazine=Time | title=Foreign News: Again, Yellow Peril | date=11 September 1933 | access-date=2 January 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830163359/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,746032,00.html | archive-date=30 August 2010 | url-status=dead }}</ref>  In the 1930s, Hearst's newspapers conducted a campaign of vilification (personal and political) against Elaine Black, an [[Communist Party USA|American communist]], whom he denounced as a [[Libertinism|libertine]] "Tiger Woman" for her interracial cohabitation with the Japanese American communist [[Karl Yoneda]].<ref name="Estrada, William David page 166">Estrada, William David.  ''The Los Angeles Plaza: Sacred and Contested Space'' Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008 p. 166.</ref> In 1931, [[interracial marriage]] was illegal in California, but, in 1935, Black and Yoneda married in Seattle, Washington, where such marriages were legal.<ref name="Estrada, William David page 166"/>

====Socially acceptable Asian====
In the 1930s, Yellow Peril stereotypes were common to US culture, exemplified by the cinematic versions of the Asian detectives [[Charlie Chan]] (Warner Oland) and [[Mr. Moto]] (Peter Lorre), originally literary detectives in novels and comic strips. White actors portrayed the Asian men and made the fictional characters socially acceptable in mainstream American cinema, especially when the villains were secret agents of Imperial Japan.<ref name="Dower 1993">Dower, John. ''War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War'', New York: Pantheon 1993</ref>{{rp|159}}

American proponents of the Japanese Yellow Peril were the military-industrial interests of the [[China Lobby]] (right-wing intellectuals, businessmen, Christian missionaries) who advocated financing and supporting the [[warlord]] ''Generalissimo'' [[Chiang Kai-shek]], a Methodist convert whom they represented as the Christian Chinese savior of China, then embroiled in the [[Chinese Civil War]] (1927–1937, 1946–1950). After the Japanese invaded China in 1937, the China Lobby successfully pressured the U.S. government to aid Chiang Kai-shek's faction. The news media's reportage (print, radio, cinema) of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–45) favored China, which politically facilitated the American financing and equipping of the anticommunist [[Kuomintang]], the Chiang Kai-shek faction in the civil war against the Communist faction led by [[Mao Tse-tung]].<ref name="Dower 1993"/>{{rp|159}}

Madame Chiang Kai-shek ([[Soong Mei-ling]]) wife of [[Chiang Kai-shek]] (President of the Republic of China), Is credited for her role in reducing [[anti-Chinese sentiment]] and influencing the repeal of the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]]. She gained respect from the US administration, working closely in partnership with her husband, particularly in his Chinese foreign relations due to her excellent English.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Hsu |first=Madeline Y. |title=The Good Immigrants : How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-691-17621-5 |location=Princeton, NJ}}</ref> To the administration she was a sign of hope, representing the success of the US cultural exchange with China, her father having been converted to Christianity by a US missionary, and became a symbol of the US-Chinese alliance against Japan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leong |first=Karen J. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/9780520938632 |title=The China Mystique |date=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |doi=10.1525/9780520938632 |isbn=978-0-520-93863-2}}</ref> Her popularity amongst the US population, drawing crowds of up to 30,000 on her 1943 nationwide speaking tour, changed the image of Chinese women.<ref name=":4" /> She was not only idolised for being glamorous, appearing on the cover of TIME magazine numerous times, but also represented a relatability due to her Christian faith and having received a good american education.<ref name=":4" /> The Citizens Committee to repeal Chinese Exclusion utilised her public popularity and good reputation to push for change in immigration laws.<ref name=":4" /> Further she influenced opinion congression on Chinese citizenship; representative Walter Judd proclaiming on national radio,

“Our exclusion of the Chinese on a racial basis also violates the finest traditions and the moral sense of the American people. Under our present laws, Hitler is admissible to our country and eligible for citizenship—Madame Chiang Kai-shek is not!”<ref>Town Meeting, “Should We Repeal the Chinese Exclusion Laws Now?” moderated by Clifford Utley, September 18, 1943, broadcast September 2, featuring Walter Judd, John B. Bennett (Michigan), Monroe Sweetland of CIO, and E. B. Libonati, Chicago American Legion. In “1943 HR 3070 Chinese Immigration 2 of 3,” Accession number 3181–002, Box 58, File 25, Warren Magnuson Papers, University of Washington Special Collections.</ref>

Madame Chiang was a symbol of the modern Chinese population and changed the US perception of China. She showed the potential for modernising China to become a democratic nation.<ref name=":4" />

====Pragmatic racialism====
[[File:Seuss cartoon.png|thumb|1942 editorial propaganda cartoon in the New York newspaper ''[[PM (newspaper)|PM]]'' by [[Dr. Seuss]] depicting Japanese Americans in California, Oregon, and Washington—states with the largest population of Japanese Americans—as prepared to conduct sabotage against the U.S.]]

In 1941, after the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], the Roosevelt administration formally declared China an ally of the U.S., and news media modified their use of Yellow Peril ideology to include China to the West, criticizing contemporary anti-Chinese laws as counterproductive to the war effort against [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]].<ref name="Dower 1993"/>{{rp|165–166}} The wartime ''zeitgeist'' and the geopolitics of the U.S. government presumed that defeat of the Imperial Japan would be followed by postwar China developing into a capitalist economy under the [[Strongman (politics)|strongman]] leadership of the Christian ''Generalissimo'' [[Chiang Kai-shek]] and the [[Kuomintang]] (Chinese Nationalist Party).

In his relations with the American government and his China Lobby sponsors, Chiang requested the repeal of American anti-Chinese laws; to achieve the repeals, Chiang threatened to exclude the American business community from the "China Market", the economic fantasy that the China Lobby promised to the American business community.<ref name="Dower 1993"/>{{rp|171–172}} In 1943, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was repealed, but, because the National Origins Act of 1924 was contemporary law, the repeal was a symbolic gesture of American solidarity with the people of China.

Science fiction writer [[William F. Wu]] said that American adventure, crime, and detective [[pulp magazine]]s in the 1930s had many Yellow Peril characters, loosely based on [[Fu Manchu]]; although "most [Yellow Peril characters] were of Chinese descent", the geopolitics of the time led white people to see Japan as a threat to the United States. In ''The Yellow Peril: Chinese Americans in American fiction, 1850–1940'' (1982), Wu said that fear of Asians dates from the European [[Middle Ages]], from the 13th-century [[Mongol invasion of Europe]]. Most Europeans had never seen an Asian man or woman, and the great differences in language, custom, and physique accounted for European paranoia about the nonwhite peoples from the Eastern world.<ref>{{cite web |first=Lisa |last=Katayama |url=http://io9.gizmodo.com/5043319/the-yellow-peril-fu-manchu-and-the-ethnic-future |title=The Yellow Peril, Fu Manchu, and the Ethnic Future |website=Io9.com |date=29 August 2008 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306044612/http://io9.gizmodo.com/5043319/the-yellow-peril-fu-manchu-and-the-ethnic-future |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====21st century====
The American academic [[Frank H. Wu]] said that anti-Chinese sentiment incited by people such as [[Steve Bannon]] and [[Peter Thiel]] is recycling anti-Asian hatred from the 19th century into a "new Yellow Peril" that is common to White [[populism|populist politics]] that do not distinguish between Asian foreigners and Asian American U.S. citizens.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tech's Modern-day 'Yellow Peril' Scare is Just the Same Old Racism {{!}} Frank H Wu|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/17/google-peter-thiel-yellow-peril-racism-tech|last=Wu|first=Frank H.|date=2019-07-17|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2020-05-13}}</ref> That American cultural anxiety about the geopolitical ascent of the [[People's Republic of China]] originates in the fact that, the West, led by the U.S., is challenged by a people whom Westerners viewed as culturally backward and racially inferior only a generation earlier.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nair |first1=Chandran |title=U.S. Anxiety over China's Huawei a Sequel of the Yellow Peril |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3009842/us-anxiety-over-huawei-sequel-yellow-peril |website=This Week in Asia|date=11 May 2019 }}</ref> That the U.S. perceives China as "the enemy", because their economic success voids the myth of [[white supremacy]] upon which the West claims cultural superiority over the East.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Powers |first1=Martin |title=In the U.S., China-bashing is Rooted in Myths of Western Superiority |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3090305/us-china-bashing-rooted-myths-western-superiority |website=This Week in Asia|date=24 June 2020 }}</ref> Moreover, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] has facilitated and increased the occurrence of [[Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic|xenophobia and anti-Chinese racism]], which the academic Chantal Chung said has "deep roots in yellow peril ideology".<ref>{{Cite web|title=The New Yellow Peril? – Anti-Chinese Sentiment in the West|url=http://www.nupoliticalreview.com/2020/03/18/the-new-yellow-peril-anti-chinese-sentiment-in-the-west/|date=2020-03-18|website=Northeastern University Political Review|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-13}}</ref>

===Australia===
[[File:Melbourne-Punch-federation-Victoria-pest-Australian-Chinese-May-1888.jpg|thumb|The [[White Australia policy]] arose from the growth of anti-Asian (particularly Chinese) sentiments that peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Pictured: The [[Melbourne Punch]] (c. May 1888)]]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, fear of the Yellow Peril was a cultural feature of the white peoples who sought to establish a country and a society in the Australian continent. The racialist fear of the nonwhite Asian Other was a thematic preoccupation common to [[invasion literature]] novels, such as ''The Yellow Wave: A Romance of the Asiatic Invasion of Australia'' (1895), ''The Colored Conquest'' (1904), ''The Awakening to China'' (1909), and the ''Fools' Harvest'' (1939). Such fantasy literature featured an Asian invasion of "the empty north" of Australia, which was populated by the [[Aboriginal Australians]], the nonwhite, native Other with whom the white emigrants competed for living space.<ref name="Affeldt">{{cite web|last = Affeldt|first = Stefanie|title = 'White Sugar' against 'Yellow Peril' Consuming for National Identify and Racial Purity|publisher = University of Oxford|date = 12 July 2011|url = https://www.wiso.uni-hamburg.de/fileadmin/sozialoekonomie/hund/text_files/Affeldt_WSAYP.pdf|access-date = 4 January 2015|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140515052716/http://www.wiso.uni-hamburg.de/fileadmin/sozialoekonomie/hund/text_files/Affeldt_WSAYP.pdf|archive-date = 15 May 2014|df = dmy-all}}</ref> In the novel ''White or Yellow?: A Story of the Race War of A.D. 1908'' (1887), the journalist and labor leader [[William Lane]] said that a horde of Chinese people legally arrived in Australia and overran white society and monopolized the industries for exploiting the natural resources of the Australian "empty north".<ref name="Affeldt"/>
[[File:Oceania UN Geoscheme - Map of Melanesia.svg|thumb|right|The Yellow Peril was used to justify the [[White Australia policy]], which excluded dark-skinned [[Melanesians]] from immigration to Australia.]]

====White nation====
As Australian invasion literature of the 19th-century, the [[Future history|future history novel]] ''White or Yellow?'' (1887) presents William Lane's [[White Australia policy|nationalist racialism]] and [[Liberalism in Australia|left-wing politics]] that portrayed Australia under threat by the Yellow Peril. In the near future, British capitalists manipulate the Australian legal system and then legislate the mass immigration of Chinese workers to Australia, regardless of the socioeconomic consequences to white Australian society. Consequent to the British manipulation of Australia's economy, the resulting social conflicts (racial, financial, cultural, sexual) escalate into a race war for control of Australia.

The Yellow Peril racism in the narrative of the novel ''White or Yellow?'' justifies White Australians' killing Chinese workers as a defensive, existential response for control of Australia.<ref name="Auerbach 2009"/>{{rp|26–27}} Lang's story of White racial replacement appeals to the fears that labor and trade union leaders exploited to oppose the legal immigration of Chinese workers, whom they misrepresented as racial, economic, and moral threats to White Australia. That Asian [[libertinism]] threatens White Christian civilization, which theme Lang represents with [[miscegenation]] (mixing of the races). The fear of racial replacement was presented as an apolitical call to white racial unity in among Australians.<ref name="Auerbach 2009">Auerbach, Sascha. ''Race, Law, and "The Chinese Puzzle" in Imperial Britain'', London: Macmillan, 2009</ref>{{rp|24}}

Culturally, Yellow Peril invasion novels expressed themes of the white man's sexual fear of the supposed voracious sexuality of Asian men and women. The stories feature Western women in sexual peril, usually rape-by-seduction facilitated with the sensual and moral release of smoked [[opium]].<ref name="Affeldt"/> In the patriarchal world of invasion literature, interracial sexual relations were "a fate worse than death" for a white woman, afterward, she was a sexual untouchable to white men.<ref name="Affeldt"/> In the 1890s, that moralistic theme was the anti-Chinese message of the feminist and labor organizer [[Rose Summerfield]] who voiced the white woman's sexual fear of the Yellow Peril, by warning society of the Chinese man's unnaturally lustful [[Male gaze|gaze]] upon the pulchritude of Australian women.<ref name="Auerbach 2009"/>{{rp|24}}

====Opposition to the racial equality proposal====
In 1901, the [[Government of Australia|Australian federal government]] adopted the [[White Australia policy]] that had been informally initiated with the [[Immigration Restriction Act 1901]], which generally excluded Asians, but in particular excluded the Chinese and the [[Melanesians|Melanesian]] peoples. Historian [[Charles Bean|C. E. W. Bean]] said that the White Australia policy was "a vehement effort to maintain a high, Western standard of economy, society, and culture (necessitating, at that stage, however it might be camouflaged, the rigid exclusion of Oriental peoples)" from Australia.<ref>Bean, C. E. W. (2014) ''ANZAC to Amiens''; Penguin Books, p.&nbsp;5.</ref> In 1913, appealing to the irrational fear of the Yellow Peril, the film ''[[Australia Calls (1913 film)|Australia Calls]]'' (1913) depicted a "Mongolian" invasion of Australia, which eventually is defeated by ordinary Australians with underground, political resistance and [[guerrilla warfare]], and not by the army of the Australian federal government.<ref>{{cite news|last = Barber|first = Lynden|title=Unsettling Echoes of Yesterday, when the Yellow Peril Hysteria Began|work = The Australian|date = 11 September 2010|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/opinion/unsettling-echoes-of-yesterday-when-the-yellow-peril-hysteria-began/story-e6frg6zo-1225917045565?nk=c5f898f2fc7c7e9cdd182c065d8ac0b1| archive-url = https://archive.today/20150118142448/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/opinion/unsettling-echoes-of-yesterday-when-the-yellow-peril-hysteria-began/story-e6frg6zo-1225917045565?nk=c5f898f2fc7c7e9cdd182c065d8ac0b1| url-status = dead| archive-date = 18 January 2015| access-date = 4 January 2015}}</ref>

In 1919, at the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]], Australian Prime Minister [[Billy Hughes]] vehemently opposed the Japanese delegation's request for the inclusion of the [[Racial Equality Proposal]] to Article 21 of the [[Covenant of the League of Nations]]:

{{blockquote|The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord, as soon as possible, to all alien nationals of states, members of the League, equal and just treatment in every respect, making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race or nationality.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gordon Lauren | first1 = Paul | year = 1978 | title = Human Rights in History: Diplomacy and Racial Equality at the Paris Peace Conference | journal = Diplomatic History | volume = 2 | issue = 3| pages = 257–278 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1978.tb00435.x| s2cid = 154765654 }}</ref>}}

Hughes stated in response to the proposal that "ninety-five out of one hundred Australians rejected the very idea of equality"; he had entered politics as a [[trade union]]ist and, like the majority of the [[European Australians|white Australian population]], was strongly opposed to Asian immigration into Australia. Hughes believed that accepting the clause would mean the end of the White Australia policy and wrote: "No Gov't could live for a day in Australia if it tampered with a White Australia."<ref>Macmillan, p. 319.</ref> Though UK officials in the British delegation (which Australia was a part of) found the proposal compatible with Britain's stance of nominal equality for all [[British subject]]s as a principle for maintaining imperial unity, they ultimately succumbed to pressure from politicians in Britain's [[dominion]]s, including Hughes, and signalled their opposition to the clause.<ref>Macmillan, p. 320.</ref>

Though conference chairman, [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Woodrow Wilson]], was indifferent to the clause, he eventually sided with the British delegation and stipulated that a unilateral requirement of a unanimous vote by the countries in the League of Nations was required for the clause to be included. On 11 April 1919, after protracted and heated debate, a final vote was called; from a quorum of 17, the proposal secured 11 votes in favor, with no delegate from any nation voting no, though there were 6 abstentions, including all 4 from the British and American delegations; it did not pass.<ref>Macmillan, p. 321.</ref>

===France===
[[File:Place aux jaunes.jpg|thumb|right|French postcard captioned "Make way for the yellows" shows Japanese imperialism running over four great nations of Europe—Russia, Britain, France, and Germany]]

====Colonial empire====
In the late 19th century, French imperialist politicians invoked the ''Péril jaune'' (Yellow Peril) in their negative comparisons of France's low birth-rate and the high birth-rates of Asian countries.<ref name="Cook Anderson page 25">Cook Anderson, Margaret. ''Regeneration Through Empire: French Pronatalists and Colonial Settlement in the Third Republic'', Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014 p. 25.</ref> From that racist claim arose an artificial, cultural fear among the French population that immigrant-worker Asians soon would "flood" France, which could be successfully countered only by increased fecundity of French women. Then, France would possess enough soldiers to thwart the eventual flood of immigrants from Asia.<ref name="Cook Anderson page 25"/> From that racialist perspective, the French press sided with Imperial Russia during the [[Russo-Japanese War]] (1904–1905), by representing the Russians as heroes defending the white race against the Japanese Yellow Peril.<ref name="Beillevaire, Patrick X. (2000) pp. 185–232">Beillevaire, P. X. "L'opinion publique française face à la guerre russo–japonaise" in ''Cipango, cahiers d'études japonaises'', Volume 9, Autumn 2000, pp.&nbsp;185–232.</ref>

[[File:Indochine française (1913).jpg|thumb|right|French Indochina: In the oriental French Empire, the country and people of Vietnam were renamed ''French Indochina''. (1913)]]
In the early 20th century, in 1904, the French journalist René Pinon reported that the Yellow Peril were a cultural, geopolitical, and existential threat to white civilization in the Western world:

{{blockquote|The "Yellow Peril" has entered already into the imagination of the people, just as represented in the famous drawing [''Peoples of Europe, Guard Your Most Sacred Possessions'',1895] of the Emperor Wilhelm II: In a setting of conflagration and carnage, Japanese and Chinese hordes spread out over all Europe, crushing under their feet the ruins of our capital cities and destroying our civilizations, grown anemic due to the enjoyment of luxuries, and corrupted by the vanity of spirit.

Hence, little by little, there emerges the idea that even if a day must come (and that day does not seem near) the European peoples will cease to be their own enemies and even economic rivals, there will be a struggle ahead to face and there will rise a new peril, the yellow man.

The civilized world has always organized itself before and against a common adversary: for the Roman world, it was the barbarian; for the Christian world, it was Islam; for the world of tomorrow, it may well be the yellow man. And so we have the reappearance of this necessary concept, without which peoples do not know themselves, just as the "Me" only takes conscience of itself in opposition to the "[[Other (philosophy)|non-Me]]": The Enemy.<ref name="TchenKuoDylan 2014"/>{{rp|124}}}}

Despite the claimed Christian idealism of the [[civilizing mission]], from the start of colonization in 1858, the French exploited the natural resources of Vietnam as inexhaustible and the Vietnamese people as beasts of burden.<ref name="Beigbeder 2006">Beigbeder, Yves. ''Judging War Crimes and Torture French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions (1940–2005)'', Brill: Martinus Nijhoff, 2006, {{ISBN|978-9004153295}}</ref>{{rp|67–68}} In the aftermath of the Second World War, the [[First Indochina War]] (1946–1954) justified recolonization of Vietnam as a defense of the white West against the ''péril jaune''—specifically that the [[Communist Party of Vietnam]] were puppets of the People's Republic of China, which is part of the "international communist conspiracy" to conquer the world.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shafer |first=Michael |title=Deadly Paradigms: The Failure of U.S. Counterinsurgency Policy |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |page=145 |isbn=978-0-691-60924-9 }}</ref> Therefore, French [[anticommunism]] utilized orientalism to dehumanize the Vietnamese into "the nonwhite [[Other (philosophy)|Other]]"; which yellow-peril racism allowed atrocities against [[Viet Minh]] prisoners of war during ''la sale guerre'' ("dirty war").<ref name="Beigbeder 2006"/>{{rp|74}} In that time, yellow-peril racism remained one of the ideological bases for the existence of [[French Indochina]], thus the French news media's [[Racialism|racialist misrepresentations]] of Viet Minh guerrillas being part of the ''innombrables masses jaunes'' (innumerable yellow hordes); being one of many ''vagues hurlantes'' (roaring waves) of ''masses fanatisées'' (fanatical hordes).<ref>{{cite book |last=Cooper |first=Nicola |chapter=Heroes and Martyrs: The Changing Mythical Status of the French Army during the Indochinese War |pages=126–141 [p. 132] |title=France at War in the Twentieth Century |editor-first=Valerie |editor-last=Holman |editor2-first=Debra |editor2-last=Kelly |location=Oxford |publisher=Berghahn |year=2000 |isbn=1-57181-701-8 }}</ref>

====Contemporary France====
In ''Behind the Bamboo Hedge: The Impact of Homeland Politics in the Parisian Vietnamese Community'' (1991) Gisèle Luce Bousquet said that the ''péril jaune'', which traditionally colored French perceptions of Asians, especially of [[Vietnamese people in France|Vietnamese people]], remains a cultural prejudice of contemporary France;<ref name="Bousquet, Gisèle Luce. p. 75.">{{cite book |last=Bousquet |first=Gisèle Luce |title=Behind the Bamboo Hedge: The Impact of Homeland Politics in the Parisian Vietnamese Community |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1991 |page=75 |isbn=0-472-10174-9 }}</ref> hence the French perceive and resent the Vietnamese people of France as academic overachievers who take jobs from "native French" people.<ref name="Bousquet, Gisèle Luce. p. 75."/>

In 2015, the cover of the January issue of ''[[Fluide Glacial]]'' magazine featured a cartoon, ''Yellow Peril: Is it Already Too Late?'', which depicts a Chinese-occupied Paris where a sad Frenchman is pulling a rickshaw, transporting a Chinese man, in 19th c. French colonial uniform, accompanied by a barely dressed, blonde French woman.<ref>{{cite news| last = Long| first = Simon| title = Dodging Peril| newspaper = The Economist| date = 22 January 2015| url = https://www.economist.com/news/china/21640402-instead-uniting-china-and-west-jihadist-violence-risks-further-dividing-them-dodging-peril| access-date = 1 February 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150201062626/http://www.economist.com/news/china/21640402-instead-uniting-china-and-west-jihadist-violence-risks-further-dividing-them-dodging-peril| archive-date = 1 February 2015| url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="France 24">{{cite web| title = French comic's 'Yellow Peril' cover upsets Chinese paper| work = France 24| date = 20 January 2015| url = http://www.france24.com/en/20150120-china-french-comic-book-yellow-peril-fluide-glacial-global-times-charlie-hebdo/| access-date = 1 February 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170629222032/http://www.france24.com/en/20150120-china-french-comic-book-yellow-peril-fluide-glacial-global-times-charlie-hebdo/| archive-date = 29 June 2017| url-status = dead}}</ref> The editor of ''Fluide Glacial'', Yan Lindingre, defended the magazine cover and the subject as satire and mockery of French fears of China's economic threat to France.<ref name="France 24"/> In an editorial addressing the Chinese government's complaint, Lindingre said, "I have just ordered an extra billion copies printed, and will send them to you via chartered flight. This will help us balance our trade deficit, and give you a good laugh".<ref name="France 24"/>

===Italy===
In the 20th century, from their perspective, as nonwhite nations in a world order dominated by the white nations, the geopolitics of [[Ethiopia–Japan relations]] allowed [[Imperial Japan]] and [[Ethiopia]] to avoid [[imperialist]] European [[colonialism|colonization]] of their countries and nations. Before the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]] (1934–1936), Imperial Japan had given diplomatic and military support to Ethiopia against invasion by [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]], which implied military assistance. In response to that Asian anti-imperialism, [[Benito Mussolini]] ordered a Yellow Peril propaganda campaign by the Italian press, which represented Imperial Japan as the military, cultural, and existential threat to the Western world, by way of the dangerous "yellow race–black race" alliance meant to [[Afro-Asia|unite Asians and Africans]] against the white people of the world.<ref name="Clarke, Joseph Calvitt page 70">Clarke, Joseph Calvitt ''Alliance of the Colored Peoples: Ethiopia and Japan Before World War II'', Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2011 p.&nbsp;70</ref>

In a report from the [[Italian Parliament (1928–1939)|Chamber of Deputies]] on 2 January 1934, Marquis [[Giacomo Medici Del Vascello|Giacomo Medici del Vascello]] wrote: "Today Japan is invading China, and inspired by race hatred she is laying plans for tomorrow against the white race." The Chamber of Deputies described Japan's withdrawal from the [[League of Nations]] as "significant and threatening."<ref>Clarke, Joseph Calvitt Alliance of the Colored Peoples: Ethiopia and Japan Before World War II, Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2011 p. 69</ref>

In 1935, Mussolini warned of the Japanese Yellow Peril, specifically the racial threat of Asia and Africa uniting against Europe.<ref name="Clarke, Joseph Calvitt page 70" /> In the summer of 1935, the [[National Fascist Party]] often staged anti–Japanese political protests throughout Italy.<ref name="RansdellBardshaw">{{cite journal | last1 = Ransdell | first1 = Jim | last2 = Bardshaw | first2 = Richard | title = Japan, Britain and the Yellow Peril in Africa in the 1930s | journal = The Asia-Pacific Journal | volume = 9 | number = 2 | date = 31 October 2011 | url = http://japanfocus.org/-Jim-Ransdell/3626 | access-date = 1 February 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150322184248/http://japanfocus.org/-Jim-Ransdell/3626 | archive-date = 22 March 2015 | url-status = live }}</ref> Nonetheless, as right-wing imperial powers, Japan and Italy pragmatically agreed to disagree; in exchange for Italian diplomatic recognition of [[Manchukuo]] (1932–45), the Japanese puppet state in China, Imperial Japan would not aid Ethiopia against Italian invasion and so Italy would end the anti–Japanese Yellow Peril propaganda in the national press of Italy.<ref name="RansdellBardshaw" />

===Mexico===
[[File:Aftermath of the Torreón massacre.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men in sombreros riding in a donkey-cart with a line of feet sticking out the back. They are riding down a dirt street away from the camera, with a line of buildings on the right.  Dated 15 May 1911.|right|In revolutionary Mexico (1910–1920), a wagonload of Asian corpses is en route to a common grave after fear of the Yellow Peril provoked a three-day massacre (11–15 May 1911) of 308 Asian people (303 Chinese, 5 Japanese) in the city of Torreón, Coahuila, in northern Mexico.]]

During the [[Mexican Revolution]] (1910–1920), [[Chinese-Mexicans]] were subjected to racist abuse before the revolt: for not being Christians, (specifically [[Catholic Church in Mexico|Roman Catholic]]); for not being racially [[Mexicans|Mexican]]; and for not soldiering and fighting in the Revolution against the thirty-five-year dictatorship (1876–1911) of General [[Porfirio Diaz|Porfirio Díaz]].<ref name="Knight 1987">Knight, Alan. ''The Mexican Revolution: Volume 2 Counter-revolution and Reconstruction'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987</ref>{{rp|44}}

The notable atrocity against Asian people was the three-day [[Torreón massacre]] (13–15 May 1911) in northern Mexico, wherein the military forces of [[Francisco I. Madero]] killed 308 Asian people (303 Chinese, 5 Japanese), because they were deemed a cultural threat to the Mexican way of life. 
In 2021, 110 years later, then-president of Mexico [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador|López Obrador]] apologized for his country's role in massacre.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mexican president apologizes for 1911 massacre of Chinese|agency=[[Associated Press]]|publisher=ABC News|location=United States|date=2021-05-18|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/mexican-president-apologizes-1911-massacre-chinese-77738535|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517161538/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/mexican-president-apologizes-1911-massacre-chinese-77738535|archive-date=2021-05-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/mexican-president-apologizes-for-1911-massacre-of-chinese/2021/05/17/b8e415de-b729-11eb-bc4a-62849cf6cca9_story.html|title=Mexican president apologizes for 1911 massacre of Chinese|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>The massacre of Chinese and [[Japanese Mexicans]] at the city of Torreón, [[Coahuila]], was not the only such atrocity perpetrated in the Revolution. Elsewhere, in 1913, after the [[Constitutional Army]] captured the city of [[Tamasopo]], San Luis Potosí state, the soldiers and the town-folk expelled the Chinese community by sacking and burning the Chinatown.<ref name="Knight 1987"/>{{rp|44}}

During and after the Mexican Revolution, the Roman Catholic prejudices of Yellow Peril ideology facilitated racial discrimination and violence against Chinese Mexicans, usually for "stealing jobs" from native Mexicans. Anti–Chinese nativist propaganda misrepresented the Chinese people as unhygienic, prone to immorality (miscegenation, gambling, opium-smoking) and spreading diseases that would biologically corrupt and degenerate ''[[La Raza]]'' (the Mexican race) and generally undermining the Mexican patriarchy.<ref name="jcurtis">{{cite journal |last1=Curtis |first1=James R. |date=July 1995 |title= Mexicali's Chinatown |journal=[[Geographical Review]] |location=New York |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=335–349 |doi=10.2307/215277 |jstor=215277|bibcode=1995GeoRv..85..335C }}</ref>In the first year alone, rebels and other Mexican citizens contributed to the deaths of some 324 Chinese. By 1919, another 129 had been killed in Mexico City, and 373 in [[Piedras Negras, Coahuila|Piedras Negras]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Delgado |first=Grace Peña |date=2012 |title=Making the Chinese Mexican: Global Migration, Localism, and Exclusion in the U.S.–Mexico Borderlands |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuTtxo2Za_UC |location=Stanford, CA |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8047-7814-5 | p=105 }}</ref>

Moreover, from the racialist perspective, besides stealing work from Mexican men, Chinese men were stealing Mexican women from the native Mexican men who were away fighting the Revolution to overthrow and expel the dictator [[Porfirio Díaz]] and his foreign sponsors from Mexico.<ref name="camacho552553">{{cite journal |last1= Schiavone Camacho |first1= Julia María |date=November 2009 |title=Crossing Boundaries, Claiming a Homeland: The Mexican Chinese Transpacific Journey to Becoming Mexican, 1930s–1960s |journal= Pacific Historical Review |location=Berkeley |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=545–577 |doi=10.1525/phr.2009.78.4.545 |jstor=10.1525/phr.2009.78.4.545 }}</ref> The persecution and violence against the Chinese in Mexico finally culminated in 1931, with the expulsion of the remaining Chinese from Sonora; approximately 70 per cent of the Chinese and the Chinese–Mexican population was expelled from the Mexican United States by the bureaucratic ethnic culling of the Mexican population.<ref name="Reejhsinghani2014">{{cite journal |last=Reejhsinghani |first=Anju |date=Spring 2014 |title=Emerging Transnational Scholarship: Chinese Mexicans in China, Mexico, and the United States-Mexico Borderlands |jstor=10.5406/jamerethnhist.33.3.0077 |journal=Journal of American Ethnic History |volume=33 |issue=3 |page=79  |doi=10.5406/jamerethnhist.33.3.0077 }}</ref><ref name="thesis108">{{cite book |last1=Campos Rico |first1=Ivonne Virginia |title= La Formación de la Comunidad China en México: políticas, migración, antichinismo y relaciones socioculturales (thesis) |year=2003 |publisher=Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH-SEP) |location=Mexico City |language=es |page=108}}</ref>

===Turkey===
In 1908, at the end of the [[Ottoman Empire]] (1299–1922) the [[Young Turk Revolution]] ascended the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] (CUP) to power, which the [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état]] reinforced with the Raid on the Sublime Porte. In admiration and emulation that the modernization of Japan during the [[Meiji Restoration]] (1868) was achieved without the Japanese people losing their national identity, the CUP intended to modernize Turkey into the "Japan of the Near East".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Worringer |first=Renée |title='Sick Man of Europe' or 'Japan of the near East'?: Constructing Ottoman Modernity in the Hamidian and Young Turk Eras |pages=207–230 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=36 |issue=2 |date=May 2004 |jstor=3880032|doi=10.1017/S0020743804362033 |s2cid=156657393 }}</ref> To that end, the CUP considered allying Turkey with Japan in a geopolitical effort to unite the peoples of the Eastern world to fight a [[ethnic conflict|racial war]] of extermination against the White colonial empires of the West.<ref name="Worringer 2014">Worringer, Renee. (2014) ''Ottomans Imagining Japan: East, Middle East, and Non–Western Modernity at the Turn of the Twentieth Century'', London: Palgrave.</ref>{{rp|54–55}} Politically, the cultural, nationalist, and geopolitical affinities of Turkey and Japan were possible because, in Turkish culture, the "yellow" color of "Eastern gold" symbolizes the innate moral superiority of the East over the West.<ref name="Worringer 2014"/>{{rp|53–54}}

Fear of the Yellow Peril occurs against the Chinese communities of Turkey, usually as political retaliation against the PRC government's repressions and human-rights abuses against the Muslim [[Uyghurs|Uighur people]] in the [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang province]] of China.<ref name="The Economist">{{cite news | title = Bashing and Wooing China Anti-Chinese protests in Turkey | newspaper = The Economist | date = 11 July 2015 | url = https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21657419-pious-sinophobia-wont-deflect-turkeys-strategic-dreams-bashing-and-wooing-china | access-date = 4 August 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150802235657/http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21657419-pious-sinophobia-wont-deflect-turkeys-strategic-dreams-bashing-and-wooing-china | archive-date = 2 August 2015 | url-status = live }}</ref> At an anti–PRC political protest in Istanbul, a South Korean woman tourist faced violence, despite identifying herself: "I am not Chinese, I am Korean".<ref name="The Economist"/> In response that Yellow Peril racism in Turkey, [[Devlet Bahçeli]], leader of the extreme right-wing [[Nationalist Movement Party]], rhetorically asked: "How does one distinguish, between Chinese and Koreans? Both have slanted eyes".<ref name="The Economist"/>

===South Africa===
[[File:Punch 1903 - Chinese Paul.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Randlord]]'s (mine owners') exploitive employment of Chinese labor contributed to the Liberal Party victory in the 1906 elections. (Punch magazine, 1903)]]

In 1904, after the conclusion of the [[Second Boer War]], the [[Unionist government, 1895–1905|Unionist Government]] of the Britain authorized the immigration to [[History of South Africa (1815–1910)|South Africa]] of approximately 63,000 [[coolie|Chinese laborers]] to work the gold mines in the [[Witwatersrand basin]].

On 26 March 1904, approximately 80,000 people attended a social protest against the use of Chinese laborers in the Transvaal held in [[Hyde Park, London]], to publicize the [[exploitation of labour|exploitation]] of [[Chinese South Africans]].<ref name="Yap1996">{{cite book|last1=Yap|first1=Melanie|title=Color, Confusion and Concessions: The History of the Chinese in South Africa|last2=Leong Man|first2=Dainne|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|year=1996|isbn=962-209-423-6|location=Hong Kong|page=510}}</ref>{{rp|107}} The Parliamentary Committee of the Trade Union Congress then passed a resolution declaring:

{{blockquote|That this meeting, consisting of all classes of citizens of London, emphatically protests against the action of the Government in granting permission to import into South Africa indentured Chinese labor under conditions of slavery, and calls upon them to protect this new colony from the greed of capitalists and the Empire from degradation.<ref name="Demo">{{cite book |title=Chinese Mine Labour in the Transvaal |last1=Official Program of the Great Demonstration in Hyde Park |first1=[S.l.:s.n.] |last2=Richardson |year=1904 |publisher=Parliamentary Committee of the Trade Union Congress |location=London |pages=5–6}}</ref>}}

The mass immigration of [[indentured servant|indentured]] Chinese laborers to mine South African gold for wages lower than acceptable to the native white men, contributed to the 1906 electoral loss of the financially conservative British Unionist government that then governed South Africa.<ref name="Yap1996" />{{rp|103}}

After 1910, most Chinese miners were repatriated to China because of the great opposition to them, as "colored people" in white South Africa, analogous to anti-Chinese laws in the US during the early 20th century.<ref name="blogs.wsj.com">{{cite news|date=19 June 2008|title=In South Africa, Chinese is the New Black|work=Wall Street Journal|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinajournal/2008/06/19/in-south-africa-chinese-is-the-new-black/|url-status=live|access-date=4 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724024004/http://blogs.wsj.com/chinajournal/2008/06/19/in-south-africa-chinese-is-the-new-black/|archive-date=24 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="Park2009">{{cite book|last=Park|first=Yoon Jung|url=http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/rei-v1.3b.pdf|title=Recent Chinese Migrations to South Africa – New Intersections of Race, Class and Ethnicity|series=Representation, Expression and Identity|publisher=Interdisciplinary Perspectives|year=2009|isbn=978-1-904710-81-3|access-date=20 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228041728/http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/rei-v1.3b.pdf|archive-date=28 December 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Despite the racial violence between white South African miners and Chinese miners, the Unionist government achieved the economic recovery of South Africa after the [[Second Boer War]] by rendering the gold mines of the Witwatersrand Basin the most productive in the world.<ref name="Yap1996" />{{rp|103}}

===New Zealand===
In the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, populist Prime Minister [[Richard Seddon]] compared the Chinese people to monkeys, and so used the Yellow Peril to promote [[Racialism|racialist]] politics in New Zealand. In 1879, in his first political speech, Seddon said that New Zealand did not wish her shores "deluged with Asiatic [[Tatars|Tartars]]. I would sooner address white men than these Chinese. You can't talk to them, you can't reason with them. All you can get from them is 'No savvy'".<ref>Burdon, Randal Mathews. ''King Dick: A Biography of Richard John Seddon'', Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955, p. 43.</ref>

Moreover, in 1905, in the city of Wellington, the [[white supremacy|white supremacist]] [[Lionel Terry]] murdered Joe Kum Yung, an old Chinese man, in protest against Asian immigration to New Zealand. Laws promulgated to limit Chinese immigration included a heavy [[Poll tax (New Zealand)|poll tax]], introduced in 1881 and lowered in 1937, after [[Imperial Japan]]'s [[Second Sino-Japanese War|invasion and occupation]] of China. In 1944, the poll tax was abolished, and in 2002 the [[Politics of New Zealand|New Zealand government]] formally apologized to the Chinese populace of New Zealand.<ref>{{cite web |title=Poll tax on Chinese immigrants abolished |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/poll-tax-on-chinese-immigrants-abolished |website=New Zealand History |access-date=June 6, 2020 |date=December 15, 1944}}</ref>

==Sexual fears==

===Background===
The core of Yellow Peril ideology is the White man's fear of seduction by the Oriental nonwhite [[Other (philosophy)|Other]]; either the sexual voracity of the [[Dragon Lady]] and the [[Lotus Blossom]] stereotypes, or the sexual voracity of the Seducer.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|3}} Racist revulsion towards [[miscegenation]]—interracial sexual intercourse—by the fear of mixed-race children as a physical, cultural, and existential threat to Whiteness proper.<ref name="Dower 1993"/>{{rp|159}} In [[Queer theory]], the term ''Oriental'' connotes contradictory sexual associations according to the nationality. A person can be perceived as Japanese and kinky, or as Filipino and available. Sometimes, ''Oriental'' could be sexless.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fung |first1=Richard |editor1-last=Bad Object-Choices |title=How Do I Look? Queer Video and Film |date=1991 |publisher=Seattle Bay Press |page=147 |chapter=Looking for My Penis: The Eroticized Asian in Gay Video Porno}}</ref>

===The seducer===

The seductive Asian man (wealthy and cultured) was the common White male fear of the Asian sexual "other." The Yellow Peril sexual threat was realized by way of successful sexual competition, usually seduction or rape, which rendered the woman a sexual untouchable. (see: ''[[55 Days at Peking]]'', 1963)<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|3}} In ''Romance and the "Yellow Peril": Race, Sex, and Discursive Strategies in Hollywood Fiction'' (1994) the critic Gary Hoppenstand identified interracial sexual-intercourse as a threat to whiteness:

{{blockquote|The threat of rape, the rape of white society dominated the yellow formula. The British or American hero, during the course of his battle against the yellow peril, overcomes numerous traps and obstacles in order to save his civilization, and the primary symbol of that civilization: white women. Stories featuring the Yellow Peril were arguments for white purity. Certainly, the potential union of the Oriental and white implied at best, a form of beastly sodomy, and at worse, a Satanic marriage. The Yellow Peril stereotype easily became incorporated into Christian mythology, and the Oriental assumed the role of the devil or demon. The Oriental rape of white woman signified a spiritual damnation for the women, and at the larger level, white society.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|3}}}}
[[File:The Cheat 1915.jpg|thumb|right|Edith Hardy (Fannie Ward) and Hishuru Tori (Sessue Hayakawa) in ''The Cheat'' (1915)]]

* In ''[[The Cheat (1915 film)|The Cheat]]'' (1915), Hishuru Tori (Sessue Hayakawa) is a sadistic Japanese sexual predator interested in Edith Hardy ([[Fannie Ward]]), an American housewife.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|19–23}} Although superficially [[Westernization|Westernized]], Tori's sexual sadism reflects his true identity as an Asian.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|16–17}} In being "brutal and cultivated, wealthy and base, cultured and barbaric, Tori embodies the contradictory qualities Americans associate with Japan".<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|19}} The story initially presents Tori as an "asexual" man associating among the high society of [[Long Island]]. Once Edith is in his private study, decorated with Japanese art, Tori is a man of "brooding, implicitly sadistic sexuality".<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|21}} Before Tori attempts his rape-seduction of Edith, the story implies she corresponds his sexual interest. The commercial success of ''The Cheat'' (1915) was ensured by [[Sessue Hayakawa]], a male sex symbol of that time; a sexual threat to the WASP racial hierarchy in 1915.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|21–22 & 25}}
* In ''[[Shanghai Express (film)|Shanghai Express]]'' (1932), General Henry Chang ([[Warner Oland]]) is a warlord of Eurasian origin, presented as an asexual man, which excludes him from Western sexual mores and the racialist hierarchy; thus, he is dangerous to the Westerners he holds hostage.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|64}} Although Eurasian, Chang is prouder of his Chinese heritage, and rejects his American heritage, which rejection confirms his Oriental identity.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|64}} In 1931, the [[Chinese Civil War]] has rendered trapped a group of Westerners into traverse China by train, from Beijing to Shanghai, which is hijacked by Chang's soldiers.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|61}} The story implies that Gen. Chang is a bisexual man who desires to rape both the heroine and the hero, Shanghai Lily ([[Marlene Dietrich]]) and Captain Donald "Doc" Harvey ([[Clive Brook]]).<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|64}} At the story's climax, Hui Fei kills Gen. Chang to save Harvey from being blinded; she explains that killing Chang restored the self-respect he took from her. Throughout the story, the narrative indicates that Shanghai Lily and Hui Fei are more attracted to each other than to Capt. Harvey, which was daring drama in 1932, because Western mores considered bisexuality an unnatural sexual orientation.<ref name="Chan 2003">Chan, Anthony, ''Perpetually Cool: The Many Lives of Anna May Wong'' Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003</ref>{{rp|232, 236}}

===The Dragon Lady===
{{Main|Dragon Lady}}

As a cultural [[Representation (arts)|representation]] of voracious Asian sexuality, the Dragon Lady is a beautiful, charming woman who readily and easily dominates men. For the White man, the Dragon Lady is the sexual [[Other (philosophy)|Other]] who represents morally degrading sexual desire.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|3}} In the cinematic genre of the Western, the cowboy town usually features a scheming Asian prostitute who uses her prettiness, sex appeal, and charisma to beguile and dominate the White man.<ref>Dhingra, Pawan, Rodíiguez, Robyn Magalit. ''Asian America: Sociological and Interdisciplinary Perspectives'', London: Polity Press, 2014 p.&nbsp;29.</ref> In the U.S. television program [[Ally McBeal]] (1997–2002), the [[Ling Woo]] character was a Dragon Lady whose Chinese identity includes sexual skills that no white woman possess.<ref>Pham, Vincent. Ono, Kent. ''Asian Americans and the Media'', London: Polity, 2009 pp.&nbsp;68–70.</ref> In the late 20th century, such a sexual representation of the Yellow Peril, which was introduced in the comic strip ''[[Terry and the Pirates (comic strip)|Terry and the Pirates]]'' (1936), indicates that in the Western imagination, Asia remains the land of the sexual nonwhite Other. To the Westerner, the seductiveness of the Orient implies spiritual threat and hidden danger to white sexual [[Identity (philosophy)|identity]].<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|67–68}}

===The Lotus Blossom===
A variant Yellow Peril seductress is presented in the [[white savior]] romance between a "White Knight" from the West and a "Lotus Blossom" from the East; each redeems the other by way of mutual [[Romance (love)|romantic love]]. Despite being a threat to the passive sexuality of white women, the romantic narrative favorably portrays the Lotus Blossom character as a woman who needs the love of a white man to rescue her from [[objectification]] by a flawed Asian culture.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|108–111}} As a heroine, the Lotus Blossom woman is an ultra-feminine model of Asian pulchritude, social grace, and culture, whose own people trapped her in an inferior, gender-determined social-class. Only a white man can rescue her from such a cultural impasse, thereby, the narrative reaffirms the [[Cultural imperialism|moral superiority]] of the Western world.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|108–111}}

====Suzie Wong====
[[File:Nancy Kwan in The World of Suzie Wong (1960).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The prostitute Suzie Wong (Nancy Kwan) working a sailor to earn her keep. (''The World of Suzie Wong'', 1960)]]

In ''[[The World of Suzie Wong (film)|The World of Suzie Wong]]'' (1960), the eponymous antiheroine is a prostitute saved by the love of Robert Lomax ([[William Holden]]), an American painter living in Hong Kong.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|123}} The East–West sexual differences available to Lomax are two: (i) the educated British woman Kay O'Neill ([[Sylvia Syms]]) who is independent and career-minded; and (ii) the poor Chinese woman Suzie Wong ([[Nancy Kwan]]), a sexual prostitute who is conventionally pretty, feminine, and submissive.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|113–116}} The cultural contrast of the [[Representation (arts)|representations]] of Suzie Wong and Kay O'Neill imply that to win the love of a white man, a Western woman should emulate the sexually passive prostitute rather than an independent career-woman.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|116}} As an [[Orientalism (book)|Oriental stereotype]], the submissive Lotus -Blossom (Wong) "proudly displays signs of a beating, to her fellow hookers, and uses it as evidence that her man loves her", which further increases Lomax's [[white savior]] desire to rescue Suzy.<ref>{{cite web| last = Butler| first = Craig| title = Review of The World of Suzie Wong| website = Allmovie| date = 22 January 2015| url = https://www.allmovie.com/movie/the-world-of-suzie-wong-v55504/review| access-date = 5 March 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140608085724/http://www.allmovie.com/movie/the-world-of-suzie-wong-v55504/review| archive-date = 8 June 2014| url-status = live}}</ref>

Psychologically, the painter Lomax needs the prostitute Wong as the muse who inspires the self-discipline necessary for commercial success.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|120}} Suzie Wong is an illiterate orphan who was sexually abused as a girl; thus her toleration of abuse by most of her Chinese clients.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|113}} Unlike the Chinese and British men for whom Suzy Wong is a sexual object, Lomax is portrayed as enlightened, which implies the moral superiority of American culture, and thus that U.S. hegemony (geopolitical and [[Cultural hegemony|cultural]]) shall be better than British hegemony.<ref name="Marchetti 1994">{{cite book|title=Romance and the "Yellow Peril": Race, Sex, and Discursive Strategies in Hollywood Fiction|first=Gina|last=Marchetti|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520914629|year=1994|url=https://archive.org/details/romanceyellowper00gina|url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|115}} When a British sailor attempts to rape the prostitute Suzy Wong, the chivalrous American Lomax rescues her and beats up the sailor, whilst Chinese men are indifferent to the rape of a prostitute.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|115}} As a Lotus Blossom stereotype, the prostitute Suzie Wong is a single mother.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|117}} In contrast to the British and Chinese mistreatment (emotional and physical) of Wong, the white savior Lomax idealizes her as a child–woman, and saves her with the Lotus Blossom social identity, a sexually passive woman who is psychologically submissive to paternalism.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|120–123}} Yet Lomax's love is conditional; throughout the story, Wong wears a [[Cheongsam]] dress, but when she wears Western clothes, Lomax orders her to only wear Chinese clothes, because Suzie Wong is acceptable only as a Lotus Blossom stereotype.<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|121}}

====Kim====
The musical ''[[Miss Saigon]]'' (1989), portrays Vietnam as a Third World country in need of a white savior.<ref name="Shimakawa 2002">Shimakawa, Karen. ''National Abjection'', Durham: Duke University Press, 2002</ref>{{rp|34}} The opening chorus of the first song, "The Heat's on Saigon", begins thus: "The heat's on Saigon / The girls are hotter 'n hell / Tonight one of these slits will be Miss Saigon / God, the tension is high / Not to mention the smell".<ref name="Shimakawa 2002"/>{{rp|34}} In Saigon City, presents the adolescent prostitute Kim as a stereotypical "Lotus Blossom" whose human identity is defined by her loving the white man Chris Scoyy, who is a marine.<ref name="Shimakawa 2002"/>{{rp|28–32}} The story of ''Miss Saigon'' portrays Vietnamese women as two stereotypes, the sexually aggressive Dragon Lady and the sexually passive Lotus Blossom.<ref name="Shimakawa 2002"/>{{rp|31–32}} In Thailand, ''Miss Saigon'' misrepresents most every Thai women as a prostitute. At the Dreamland brothel, the Vietnamese woman Kim is the only prostitute to not present herself in a bikini swimsuit to the clients.<ref name="Shimakawa 2002"/>{{rp|32}}

==Literary Yellow Peril==

===Novels===
[[File:Dr Fu Manchu I W Publishing.jpg|thumb|upright|''Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1958) is an example of Yellow Peril ideology for children. (art by [[Carl Burgos]])]]

The Yellow Peril was a common subject for 19th-century [[adventure fiction]], of which [[Fu manchu|Dr. Fu Manchu]] is the representative villain, created in the likeness of the villain in the novel ''The Yellow Danger; Or, what Might Happen in the Division of the Chinese Empire Should Estrange all European Countries'' (1898), by [[M. P. Shiel]].<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2 |edition= |series=New Approaches to International History series |location=London, UK}}</ref>{{Rp|page=11}} The Chinese gangster Fu Manchu is a mad scientist intent upon conquering the world, but is continually foiled by the British policeman Sir [[Denis Nayland Smith]] and his companion Dr. Petrie, in thirteen novels (1913–59), by [[Sax Rohmer]].

Fu Manchu heads the Si-Fan, an international criminal organization and a pan-Asian gang of murderers recruited from the "darkest places of the East".<ref name="Seshagiri pages 211-216">Seshagiri, Urmila "Modernity's (Yellow) Perils" pp. 211–216, ''Yellow Peril!: An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear'', John Kuo Wei Tchen & Dylan Yeats, Eds. London: Verso, 2014.</ref> The plots of the novels feature the recurring scene of Fu Manchu despatching assassins (usually Chinese or Indian) to kill Nayland Smith and Dr. Petrie. In the course of adventure, Nayland-Smith and Petrie are surrounded by murderous colored men, Rohmer's Yellow Peril metaphor for Western trespass against the East.<ref name="Seshagiri pages 211-216"/> In the context of the Fu Manchu series, and Shiel's influence, reviewer Jack Adrian described Sax Rohmer as a

{{blockquote|shameless inflater of a peril that was no peril at all{{nbsp}}... into an absurd global conspiracy.
He had not even the excuse{{nbsp}}... of his predecessor in this shabby lie, M.P. Shiel, who was a vigorous racist, sometimes exhibiting a hatred and horror of Jews and Far Eastern races. Rohmer's own racism was careless and casual, a mere symptom of the times.<ref>Adrian, Jack. "Rohmer, Sax" pp. 482–484, ''St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost and Gothic Writers'', David Pringle, Ed. Detroit: St. James Press, 1997.</ref>}}

''Yellow Peril: The Adventures of Sir John Weymouth–Smythe'' (1978), by Richard Jaccoma, is a [[pastiche]] of the Fu Manchu novels.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Jaccoma|title="Yellow Peril": The Adventures of Sir John Weymouth-Smythe: a Novel|publisher=Richard Marek Publishers|year=1978|isbn=0-399-90007-1}}</ref> Set in the 1930s, the story is a distillation of the Dragon Lady seductress stereotype and of the ruthless [[Mongol]]s who threaten the West. The first-person narrative is by Sir John Weymouth–Smythe, an antihero who is a lecher and a prude, continually torn between sensual desire and Victorian prudery. The plot is the quest for the Spear of Destiny, a relic with supernatural power, which gives the possessor control of the world. Throughout the story, Weymouth–Smythe spends much time battling the villain, Chou en Shu, for possession of the Spear of Destiny. Thematic developments reveal that true villain are but the (Nazi). ostensible allies of Weymouth–Smythe. The Nazis leaders is Clara Schicksal, a Teutonic blonde woman who sacrifices Myanma boys to ancient German gods, whilst [[fellatio|fellating]] them; later, in punishment, Weymouth–Symthe sodomizes Clara.<ref>{{cite web| last = Kenney| first = Joe| title = The Yellow Peril: The Adventures of John Weymout–Smythe, by Richard Jaccoma| date = 21 June 2013| url = http://glorioustrash.blogspot.ca/2013/06/yellow-peril.html| access-date = 16 December 2014| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150427111320/http://glorioustrash.blogspot.ca/2013/06/yellow-peril.html| archive-date = 27 April 2015| url-status = live}}</ref>

The ''[[Yellow Peril (novel)|Yellow Peril]]'' (1989), by Bao Mi ([[Wang Lixiong]]) presents a civil war in the People's Republic of China that escalates to internal [[nuclear warfare]], which then escalates into the [[World War III|Third World War]]. Published after the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], the political narrative of ''Yellow Peril'' presents the dissident politics of anti–Communist Chinese, and consequently was suppressed by the Chinese government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freemedia.at/cms/ipi/freedom_detail.html?country=/KW0001/KW0005/KW0114/&year=1999|title=1999 World Press Freedom Review|publisher=IPI International Press Institute|access-date=5 November 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012090849/http://www.freemedia.at/cms/ipi/freedom_detail.html?country=%2FKW0001%2FKW0005%2FKW0114%2F&year=1999|archive-date=12 October 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Short stories===
[[File:The Yellow Menace.jpg|thumb|right|In ''The Yellow Menace'' film serial, Asian villains threaten the white heroine. (September 1916)<ref name="Marchetti 1994"/>{{rp|3}}]]

* ''The Infernal War'' (''La Guerre infernale'', 1908), by [[Pierre Giffard]], illustrated by [[Albert Robida]], is a science fiction story that depicts a War as a fight among the empires of the White man, which distraction allows China to invade Russia, and Japan to invade the U.S. In support of Yellow Peril racism, Robida's illustrations depict the cruelties and tortures that Asians inflict upon the White man, Russian and American.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Iannuzzi|first=Giulia|title=The Cruel Imagination: Oriental Tortures from a Future Past in Albert Robida's Illustrations for ''La Guerre infernale'' (1908)|date=2017|url=https://www.openstarts.units.it/handle/10077/15718|publisher=Edizioni Università di Trieste|isbn=978-8883038426|access-date=2019-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406111546/https://www.openstarts.units.it/handle/10077/15718|archive-date=6 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In "Under the Ban of Li Shoon" (1916) and "Li Shoon's Deadliest Mission" (1916), [[H. Irving Hancock]] introduced the villain [[Li Shoon]], a "tall and stout" man with "a round, moon-like yellow face" with "bulging eyebrows" above "sunken eyes". Personally, Li Shoon is "an amazing compound of evil" and [[intellect]], which makes him "a wonder at everything wicked" and "a marvel of satanic cunning."<ref>''Detective Story Magazine'' (1916), p. 000.</ref>
* ''The Peril of the Pacific'' (1916), by [[J. Allan Dunn]], describes a fantastical, 1920 Japanese invasion of the U.S. mainland realized by an alliance between treasonous [[Japanese Americans|Japanese-Americans]] and the Imperial Japanese Navy. The racist language of J. Allan Dunn's narrative communicates the irrational, Yellow Peril fear of and about Japanese-American citizens in California, who were exempt from arbitrary deportation by the [[Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907]].<ref>Dunn, J.&nbsp;Allan. ''The Peril of the Pacific'', Off-Trail Publications (2011). {{ISBN|978-1-935031-16-1}}</ref>
* "[[The Unparalleled Invasion]]" (1910), by Jack London, set between 1976 and 1987, shows China conquering and colonizing neighboring countries.  In self-defense, the Western World retaliate with [[biological warfare]].  Western armies and navies kill the Chinese refugees at the border, and [[punitive expedition]]s kill the survivors in China.  London describes this war of extermination as necessary to the white [[settler colonialism]] of China, in accordance with "the democratic American program".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://london.sonoma.edu/Writings/StrengthStrong/invasion.html|title=The Unparalleled Invasion|publisher=The Jack London Online Collection|access-date=5 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529213234/http://london.sonoma.edu/Writings/StrengthStrong/invasion.html|archive-date=29 May 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* In "[[He (short story)|He]]" (1926), by H. P. Lovecraft, the protagonist white-man is allowed to see the future of planet Earth, and sees "yellow men" triumphantly dancing among the ruins of the White man's world. In "[[The Horror at Red Hook]]" (1927), features Red Hook, New York, as a place were "slant-eyed immigrants practice nameless rites in honor of heathen gods by the light of the moon."<ref>See ''The Call of Cthulhu and other Weird Stories'', Penguin Classics (1999) p. 390.</ref>

==Cinema==
[[File:Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe (1940) 1.jpg|thumb|right|The Yellow Peril Future: In ''Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe'' (1940), Ming the Merciless (Charles Middleton) and a concubine (Carmen D'Antonio).]]

In the 1930s, American cinema (Hollywood) presented contradictory images of East Asian men: (i) The malevolent master-criminal, Dr. [[Fu Manchu]]; and (ii) The benevolent master-detective, [[Charlie Chan]].<ref name="Huang Yunte page 144"/> Fu Manchu is "[[Sax Rohmer|[Sax] Rohmer]]'s concoction of cunning Asian villainy [that] connects with the irrational fears of proliferation and incursion: Racist myths often carried by the water imagery of flood, deluge, the tidal waves of immigrants, rivers of blood."<ref name="Stoneman">{{cite news| last = Stoneman| first = Rod| title = Far East Fu fighting: The Yellow Peril – Dr Fu Manchu and the Rise of Chinophobia| newspaper = The Irish Times| date = 8 November 2014| url = https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/far-east-fu-fighting-the-yellow-peril-dr-fu-manchu-and-the-rise-of-chinophobia-1.1988872| access-date = 4 January 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150119003951/http://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/far-east-fu-fighting-the-yellow-peril-dr-fu-manchu-and-the-rise-of-chinophobia-1.1988872| archive-date = 19 January 2015| url-status = live}}</ref>

''[[The Mask of Fu Manchu]]'' (1932) shows that the white man's sexual-anxiety is one of the bases of Yellow Peril fear, especially when Fu Manchu ([[Boris Karloff]]) urges his Asian army to "Kill the white man and take his women!"<ref>Frayling, Christopher. "Fu Manchu", in ''The BFI Companion to Horror''. London, Cassell, 1996, pp. 131–132. {{ISBN|0-304-33216-X}}</ref> Moreover, as an example of "unnatural" sexual relations among Asians, father–daughter incest is a recurrent, narrative theme of ''The Mask of Fu Manchu'', communicated by the ambiguous relations between Fu Manchu and [[Fah Lo Suee|Fah Lo See]] ([[Myrna Loy]]), his daughter.<ref name="Huang Yunte page 144">Yunte, Huang. ''Charlie Chan: The Untold Story of the Honorable Detective and His Rendezvous with American History'', New York: W.W. Norton, 2010. p. 144.</ref>

In 1936, when the Nazis banned the novels of Sax Rohmer in Germany, because they believed him Jewish, Rohmer denied being racist and published a letter declaring himself "a good Irishman", yet was disingenuous about the why of the Nazi book-ban, because "my stories are not inimical to Nazi ideals."<ref name="Stoneman"/> In science fiction cinema, the "futuristic Yellow Peril" is embodied by Emperor [[Ming the Merciless]] is an iteration of the Fu Manchu trope who is the nemesis of the [[Flash Gordon]]; likewise, [[Buck Rogers]] fights against the Mongol Reds, a Yellow Peril who conquered the U.S. in the 25th century.<ref>Peter X. Feng, ''Screening Asian Americans'', Rutgers University Press, 2002, p. 59.</ref>

==Comic books==
[[File:The Green Mask 6 page 43.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Green Mask'' #6 p. 43, August 1941, [[Fox Feature Syndicate]], art by Munson Paddock]]

In 1937, the publisher [[DC Comics]] featured "Ching Lung" on the cover and in the first issue of ''[[Detective Comics]]'' (March 1937).  Years later, the character would be revisited in ''New Super-Man'' (June 2017), where his true identity is revealed to be All-Yang, the villainous twin brother of [[I Ching (comics)|I-Ching]], who deliberately cultivated the Yellow Peril image of Ching Lung to show [[Kong Kenan|Super-Man]] how the West caricaturized and vilified the Chinese.

In the late 1950s, [[Atlas Comics (1950s)|Atlas Comics]] (Marvel Comics) published ''[[Yellow Claw (comics)|Yellow Claw]]'', a pastiche of the Fu Manchu stories.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2021-08-29|title=Shang-Chi: How the MCU's New Hero Was First Connected to the Ten Rings|url=https://www.cbr.com/shang-chi-ten-rings-comic-book-debut/|access-date=2021-08-29|website=CBR|language=en-US}}</ref> Unusually for the time, the racist imagery was counterbalanced by the Asian-American FBI agent, [[Jimmy Woo]], as his principal opponent.

In 1964, [[Stan Lee]] and [[Don Heck]] introduced, in ''[[Tales of Suspense]]'', the [[Mandarin (comics)|Mandarin]], a Yellow Peril-inspired [[supervillain]] and [[archenemy]] of [[Marvel Comics]] superhero [[Iron Man]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=DeFalco |first1=Tom |author-link=Tom DeFalco |last2=Gilbert |first2=Laura |chapter=1960s |title=Marvel Chronicle: A Year by Year History |publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]] |date=2008 |page=99 |isbn=978-0756641238 |quote=Following the tradition of Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu and Atlas' own Yellow Claw, the Mandarin first appeared in ''Tales of Suspense'' #50 in a story written by Stan Lee and illustrated by Don Heck.}}</ref>  In ''[[Iron Man 3]]'' (2013), set in the [[Marvel Cinematic Universe]], the Mandarin appears as the leader of the [[Ten Rings (organization)|Ten Rings]] terrorist organization.  Hero [[Tony Stark (Marvel Cinematic Universe)|Tony Stark]] (played by [[Robert Downey, Jr.]]) discovers that the Mandarin is an English actor, [[Trevor Slattery]] ([[Ben Kingsley]]), who was hired by [[Aldrich Killian]] ([[Guy Pearce]]) as a cover for his own criminal activities.  According to director [[Shane Black]] and screenwriter [[Drew Pearce]], making the Mandarin an impostor avoided Yellow Peril stereotyping while modernizing it with a message about the [[Fearmongering|use of fear]] by the [[military industrial complex]].<ref name=comm>{{cite AV media |people=Black, Shane; Pearce, Drew |chapter=[[Audio commentary]] for ''Iron Man 3'' |title=Iron Man 3 |medium=Blu-ray |publisher=Walt Disney Home Entertainment |date=2013}}</ref>

In the 1970s, [[DC Comics]] introduced a clear Fu Manchu analogue in supervillain [[Ra's al Ghul]], created by [[Dennis O'Neil]], [[Neal Adams]] and [[Julius Schwartz]]. While maintaining a level of racial ambiguity, the character's signature Fu Manchu beard and "Chinaman" clothing made him an instance of Yellow Peril stereotyping.  When adapting the character for ''[[Batman Begins]]'', screenwriter [[David Koepp]] and director [[Christopher Nolan]] had [[Ken Watanabe]] play an imposter Ra's al Ghul to distract from his true persona, played by [[Liam Neeson]]. As with ''Iron Man 3'', this was this done to avoid the problematic origins of the character, making them a deliberate fake rather than a true portrayal of a different culture's insidious designs.

[[Marvel Comics]] used Fu Manchu as the principal foe of his son, [[Shang-Chi]], Master of Kung Fu. As the result of Marvel Comics later losing the rights to the Fu Manchu name, his later appearances give him the real name of [[Zheng Zu]].<ref name=":2" /> The [[Marvel Cinematic Universe]] film ''[[Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings]]'' (2021) replaces Fu Manchu with [[Xu Wenwu]] ([[Tony Leung Chiu-wai|Tony Leung]]), an original character partially inspired by Zheng Zu and the Mandarin; thus downplaying yellow peril implications as Wenwu is opposed by an Asian [[superhero]], his son [[Shang-Chi (Marvel Cinematic Universe)|Shang-Chi]] ([[Simu Liu]]), rather than Tony Stark, while omitting references to the Fu Manchu character.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Outlaw |first1=Kofi |title=Shang-Chi Casting May Confirm Major Mandarin Origin Retcon in MCU |url= https://comicbook.com/marvel/2019/07/25/shang-chi-movie-origin-mandarin-father-son/ |work=ComicBook.com |date=25 July 2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190806155713/https://comicbook.com/marvel/2019/07/25/shang-chi-movie-origin-mandarin-father-son/ |archive-date=6 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Coggan |first=Devan |date=April 19, 2021 |title=Simu Liu suits up in first look at Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings |url=https://ew.com/movies/shang-chi-and-the-legend-of-the-ten-rings-simu-liu-first-look/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419131805/https://ew.com/movies/shang-chi-and-the-legend-of-the-ten-rings-simu-liu-first-look/|archive-date=April 19, 2021 |access-date=April 19, 2021 |magazine=[[Entertainment Weekly]]}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Alien land laws]]
* [[Anti-Asian racism in the United States]]
* [[Chinese head tax]]
* [[Anti-Chinese sentiment]]
* [[China threat theory]]
* [[Chinese virus (politics)]]
* [[Dusky Peril]]
* [[Examples of Yellowface]]
* [[Japanese Problem]]
* [[Jewish Bolshevism]]
* [[Model minority]]
* ''[[Red Chinese Battle Plan]]''
* [[Red Scare]]
* [[Sinophobia]]
* [[Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States]]
* [[The White Man's Burden]]
* [[White Australia policy]]
* [[Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
{{Reflist}}

==Publications==
* ''Yellow Peril, Collection of British Novels 1895–1913'', in 7 vols., edited by Yorimitsu Hashimoto, Tokyo: Edition Synapse. {{ISBN|978-4-86166-031-3}}
* ''Yellow Peril, Collection of Historical Sources'', in 5 vols., edited by Yorimitsu Hashimoto, Tokyo: Edition Synapse. {{ISBN|978-4-86166-033-7}}
* ''Baron Suematsu in Europe during the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05): His Battle with Yellow Peril'', by Matsumura Masayoshi, translated by Ian Ruxton (lulu.com, 2011)
* {{cite journal | last=Dickinson |first=Edward Ross |title=Sex, Masculinity, and the 'Yellow Peril': Christian von Ehrenfels' Program for a Revision of the European Sexual Order, 1902–1910 |pages=255–284 |journal=[[German Studies Review]] |volume=25 |issue=2 |year=2002 |doi=10.2307/1432992 |pmid=20373550 |jstor=1432992}}
* Klein, Thoralf (2015), ''[http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/thoralf-klein-the-yellow-peril?set_language=en&-C= The "Yellow Peril"]'', [http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ EGO - European History Online], Mainz: [http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php Institute of European History], retrieved: March 17, 2021 ([https://d-nb.info/1125549890/34 pdf]).
* Palmer, James ''The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia'', New York: Basic Books, 2009, {{ISBN|0465022073}}.
* Yellow Peril!: An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear, edited by John Kuo Wei Tchen and Dylan Yeats. {{ISBN|978-1781681237}}
* Shim, Doobo. "From yellow peril through model minority to renewed yellow peril." ''Journal of Communication Inquiry'' 22.4 (1998): 385–409, in US [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Doobo-Shim-2/publication/249734709_From_Yellow_Peril_through_Model_Minority_to_Renewed_Yellow_Peril/links/56d194b508aeb52500cfc8b9/From-Yellow-Peril-through-Model-Minority-to-Renewed-Yellow-Peril.pdf online]

==External links==
{{commons category}}{{Library resources box}}
* [http://www.icols.org/pages/ATrumb/ATrumb-Yellow.html A Statement on Yellow]
* [http://offscreen.com/view/yellow_fever From Yellow Peril to Yellow Fever The Representation of Asians from Anna May Wong to Lucy Liu] by Krystle Doromal
* [http://yellow-face.com/ Yellowface! Racist Anti-Asian Stereotypes]
* "[https://web.archive.org/web/20170703214330/https://nyupress.org/webchapters/0814736408intro.pdf Introduction]," [[Gerald Horne]], ''Race War! White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire'' (New York; London: New York University Press, 2003).
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/yellow_promise_yellow_peril/yp_essay01.html Yellow Promise/Yellow Peril: Foreign Postcards of the Russo-Japanese War] by [[John W. Dower]]
* [http://london.sonoma.edu/Writings/StrengthStrong/invasion.html "The Unparalleled Invasion"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529213234/http://london.sonoma.edu/Writings/StrengthStrong/invasion.html |date=29 May 2014 }} by Jack London, climaxing in the total genocide of the Chinese.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170529041937/http://www.njedge.net/~knapp/Schreiber_Article.htm A Footnote on the Yellow Peril] by [[Mark Schreiber (writer)|Mark Schreiber]]
* [http://www.aplink.co.jp/synapse/4-86166-031-9.html Yellow Peril, Collection of British Novels 1895–1913] in Chinese.
* [http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2014/06/20/old-yellow-peril-anti-chinese-posters/ Old Yellow Peril Propaganda]
* [http://www.theaustralian.com.au/opinion/unsettling-echoes-of-yesterday-when-the-yellow-peril-hysteria-began/story-e6frg6zo-1225917045565 Unsettling echoes of yesterday, when the yellow peril hysteria began] by Lynden Barber
* [http://therumpus.net/2013/04/yellow-peril-and-the-american-dream/ The Yellow Peril and the American Dream] by Catherine Chung
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/yellow_promise_yellow_peril/yp_essay04.html The Yellow Peril] by [[John W. Dower]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170629222032/http://www.france24.com/en/20150120-china-french-comic-book-yellow-peril-fluide-glacial-global-times-charlie-hebdo/ French comic's 'Yellow Peril' cover upsets Chinese paper]
* [https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B01GXHP6MA "'The Awakening of China': Western Concepts of China in the Early 20th Century"] by Edwin Poon
* [http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/153958 Is the Yellow Peril Dead?] by Ellen Wu
* [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/S22%20-The%20Malleable%20Yet%20Undying%20Nature%20of%20the%20Yellow%20Peril.htm The Malleable Yet Undying Nature of the Yellow Peril] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102102520/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/S22%20-The%20Malleable%20Yet%20Undying%20Nature%20of%20the%20Yellow%20Peril.htm |date=2 January 2015 }} by Tim Yang
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/467445?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents The Yellow Peril: Chinese-Americans in American Fiction 1850–1940 by William F. Wu]

{{Anti-Chinese sentiment}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yellow Peril}}
[[Category:Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States]]
[[Category:Anti–East Asian sentiment in the United States]]
[[Category:Anti-immigration politics]]
[[Category:Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States]]
[[Category:Asian-American issues]]
[[Category:Asian-Australian issues]]
[[Category:Chinese-American history]]
[[Category:History of immigration to the United States]]
[[Category:Japanese-American history]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Scares]]
[[Category:White supremacy]]