Editing Yinxu

{{Short description|Site of the last capital of the Shang dynasty}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name          = Yinxu
| image         = Yinxu.jpg
| caption       = Yinxu, the site of the Shang dynasty capital between {{circa|1350}} and {{circa|1046&nbsp;BCE}}
| location      = [[Yindu District]], [[Anyang]], Henan, China
| coordinates   = {{Wikidatacoord|Q464904|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| map_type      = China Henan#China
| relief        = yes
| embedded      = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site|child=yes
 |Official_name = Yin Xu
 |ID            = 1114
 |Year          = 2006
 |Criteria      = Cultural: ii, iii, iv, vi
 |Area          = 414 ha
 |Buffer_zone   = 720 ha
}}
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| c = 殷墟
| l = "Ruins of Yin"
| p = Yīnxū
| w = {{tonesup|Yin1-hsü1}}
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|yin|1|.|x|v|1}}
| j = Jan1 heoi1
| y = Yānhēui
| tl = Ûn-hi
}}
'''Yinxu''' ({{IPA|cmn|ín.ɕý}}; {{zh|c=殷墟|l=Ruins of Yin}}) is a Chinese [[archeological site]] corresponding to Yin, the [[historical capitals of China|final capital]] of the [[Shang dynasty]] ({{circa|1600|1046&nbsp;BCE}}). Located in present-day [[Anyang]], Henan, Yin served as the capital during the [[Late Shang]] period ({{circa|1250|1046&nbsp;BCE}}) which spanned the reigns of 12 Shang kings and saw the emergence of [[oracle bone script]], the earliest known [[Chinese writing]]. Along with oracle bone script and other material evidence for the Shang's existence, the site was forgotten for millennia. Its rediscovery in 1899 resulted from an investigation into [[oracle bones]] that were discovered being sold nearby. The rediscovery of Yinxu marked the beginning of decades of intensive excavation and study. It is one of China's oldest and largest archeological sites, and was selected by [[UNESCO]] as a [[World Heritage Site]] in 2006.<ref name="who">{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1114 |title=Yin Xu |access-date=6 August 2007 |publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref> Yinxu is located in northern [[Henan]], near modern [[Anyang]] and the borders Henan shares with [[Hebei]] and [[Shanxi]]. Public access to the site is permitted.

==Traditional history==
According to the 2nd century ''[[Shuowen Jiezi]]'' dictionary (說文解字), the [[Chinese characters|Chinese character]] "{{linktext|殷}}" (''yīn'') originally referred to "vibrant music-making".<ref>See [https://www.shuowen.org/view/5229 ''Shuowen Jiezi'' 說文解字 entry 殷.]</ref> Although frequently used throughout written history to refer to both the Shang dynasty and its final capital, the name ''Yīn'' ({{lang|zh|殷}}) appears to have not been used in this way until the succeeding [[Zhou dynasty]]. In particular, the name does not appear in the [[oracle bone]]s, which refer to the state as ''Shāng'' ({{lang|zh|商}}), and its final capital as ''Dàyì Shāng'' (大邑商 "Great Settlement Shang").{{sfnp|Keightley|1999|p=232}}

Among surviving ancient Chinese historical documents, Yin is described as the final capital of the Shang dynasty. There is some disagreement, though, as to when the move to Yin took place. Both the ''[[Book of Documents]]'', (specifically, the "Pan Geng" chapter, which is believed to date from the late [[Spring and Autumn period]]), and the ''[[Bamboo Annals]]'' state that Shang king [[Pan Geng]] moved the Shang capital to Yin. The Bamboo Annals state, more specifically, that during his reign Pan Geng moved the capital from Yān (奄; present-day [[Qufu]], in present-day [[Shandong Province]]), to a site called Běimĕng ({{lang|zh|北蒙}}), where it was then renamed to Yīn ({{lang|zh|殷}}).<ref name="PanGengI">{{cite book |url=https://ctext.org/shang-shu/pan-geng-i |title=Pan Geng I |website=Chinese Text Project |access-date=29 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="BambooAnnals">{{cite book |url=https://ctext.org/zhushu-jinian/pan-geng |title=Pan Geng |website=Chinese Text Project |access-date=28 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="baiShouyi">{{cite book |last=Bai |first=Shouyi |title=An Outline History of China |year=2002 |publisher=Foreign Language Press |location=Beijing |isbn=7-119-02347-0}}</ref> (Conversely, according to the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' of [[Sima Qian]], Pan Geng moved the Shang capital from a location north of the [[Yellow River]] to Bo {{linktext|亳}}, the capital of Shang dynasty founder [[Tang of Shang|Tang]], on the south side of the river—a location inconsistent with the location of Yin.<ref name="AnnalsofYin">{{cite book |url=https://ctext.org/shiji/yin-ben-ji |title=Annals of Yin |website=Chinese Text Project |access-date=28 March 2018}}</ref>)

Regardless, Yin was clearly established as the Shang capital by the time of Shang king [[Wu Ding]]. Wu Ding launched numerous military campaigns from this base against surrounding tribes, thus securing Shang rule and raising the dynasty to its historical zenith.

According to the traditional accounts, later rulers became pleasure-seekers who took no interest in state affairs. King [[King Zhou of Shang|Zhòu]], the last of the Shang dynasty kings, is particularly remembered for his ruthlessness and debauchery. His increasingly autocratic laws alienated the nobility until King [[King Wu of Zhou|Wu]] of the [[Zhou dynasty]] was able to gain the support to rise up and overthrow the Shang.

The Zhou dynasty established their capital at [[Fenghao]] near modern-day [[Xi'an]], and Yīn was abandoned to fall into ruin. These ruins were mentioned by [[Sima Qian]] in his ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', more precisely in the [[Battle of Julu]], and described in some detail by [[Li Daoyuan]] in his ''[[Shui Jing Zhu|Commentary to the River Classic]]'', published during the [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]] period (420–589 CE). Thereafter, the once-great city of Yīn was relegated to legend along with its founding dynasty until its rediscovery in the final years of the [[Qing dynasty]].
<!--=== Capitals ===
{{Confusing|section|date=June 2010}}
The Shang dynasty had a sequence of seven capitals through its history, with only the final one the largest and only true city.<ref name="Lin, 2007">Lin, 2007</ref> In chronological order,<ref>Schinz 34, 1984</ref> these capitals were: Fan, Bo, Shen (pre-dynastic); dynastic capitals: Xibo (also Bo of Tang, Yanshi, Honan), located in Xitazhuang township of Yanshi county at the Erlitou site; Ao (also Xiao), located in Zhengzhou prefecture, Henan province; Xiang, Xing, Bi, Bo, Yin (also Yinxu) located in Anyang prefecture, Henan province; Zhou Ge, Bo Gu and Yidu.-->

==Archaeological discoveries==
[[File:Shang dynasty inscribed scapula.jpg|thumb|upright|Ox scapula recording divinations by Zhēng 爭 in the reign of King [[Wu Ding]]]]

Yinxu is well known for its [[oracle bone]]s, which were first recognized as containing ancient Chinese writing in [[1899 in archaeology|1899]] by [[Wang Yirong]], director of the [[Guozijian|Imperial Academy]].<ref name="yinxuArch3">{{cite news |title=The Discovery of Oracle Bones and the Locating of Yinxu site |publisher=The Garden Museum of Yin Ruins |quote=The Discovery of Oracle Bones and the Locating of Yinxu site. In 1899, Wang Yirong, the director of the Imperial College and a well-known scholar of ancient inscriptions discovered dragon bones (known today as oracle bone inscriptions). He sent his assistants to Xiaotun village in Anyang, (安陽),  and enabled him to confirm that Xiaotun was indeed the Yinxu (Ruins of Yin) in the historical records. In 1917 Wang Guowei successfully deciphered the names in oracle bone inscriptions of Shang ancestors and from these was able to reconstruct the Shang genealogy. It matched the record in (司馬遷),  Sima Qian’s ‘Shiji'  (史記) (Records of the Historian). Thus, the legend of Shang dynasty was confirmed as history and the importance of Yinxu was recognized by the academic world. The first excavations at Yinxu began in 1928.}}</ref> One account of Wang's discovery was that he was suffering from [[malaria]] at the time and was prescribed Longgu (龍骨) (''[[dragon bones]]'') at a traditional Chinese pharmacy. He noticed strange carvings on these bones and concluded that these could be samples of an ancient form of Chinese writing.

News of the discovery of the oracle bones created a market for them among antiques collectors, and led to multiple waves of illegal digs over several decades, with tens of thousands of pieces taken.{{sfn|Chou|1976|p=1}}{{sfn|Xu|2002|p=6}} The source of the "dragon bones" was eventually traced to the small village of [[Xiaotun]], just outside [[Anyang]].<ref name="yinxuArch3" /> In 1910, noted scholar [[Luo Zhenyu]] affirmed that the area was the site of the last Shang dynasty capital.{{sfnp|Wilkinson|2000|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&pg=PA391 391]}} Canadian missionary and oracle bone analyst [[James Mellon Menzies|James Menzies]] also independently identified Anyang as the capital in 1910.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=August 1957 |title=James Mellon Menzies, 1885–1957 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=672–673 |doi=10.1017/S0021911800134813 |last1=Goodrich |first1=L. Carrington |s2cid=162745662 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In [[1917 in archaeology|1917]], [[Wang Guowei]] deciphered the oracle bone inscriptions of the names of the Shang kings and constructed a complete Shang genealogy. This closely matched that in the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' by [[Sima Qian]], confirming the historical authenticity of the legendary Shang dynasty and the archaeological importance of Yinxu.<ref name="yinxuArch3"/>
However, the oracle bone inscriptions record the name of the state as Dàyìshāng ({{lang|zh|大邑商}}) or Shāngyì ({{lang|zh|商邑}}).

The first official archeological excavations at Yinxu were led by the archeologist [[Li Ji (archeologist)|Li Ji]] of the Institute of History and Philosophy from [[1928 in archaeology|1928]]–[[1937 in archaeology|37]].<ref name="yinxuArch4">{{cite news |title=Information Panel |publisher=The Garden Museum of Yin Ruins |quote=Since the first excavation in 1928, archaeologists have been working at the Yinxu site for over seventy years. There have been two main periods of excavation: (1) from 1928–1937, when excavations were carried out by the Institute of History and Philosophy; and (2) since 1950, when the Institute of Archeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (formerly Chinese Academy of Sciences) have been responsible for excavations have yielded some very important results: evidence of stratification of the Hougang site, remains of palaces and temples, royal cemeteries, oracle bone inscriptions, bronze-and bone-workshops and the discovery of the Shang city on the north bank of the Huan River.}}</ref> They uncovered the remains of a royal palace, several royal tombs, and more than 100,000 oracle bones that show the Shang had a well-structured script with a complete system of written signs.<ref name="cctv">{{cite web |url=http://www.cctv.com/program/travelogue/20041118/101442.shtml |title=An Yang, ancient capital of the Shang dynasty |access-date=6 August 2007 |publisher=[[China Central Television]]}}</ref>

Since [[1950 in archaeology|1950]] ongoing excavations by the [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] have uncovered evidence of stratification at the Hougang site, remains of palaces and temples, royal cemeteries, oracle bone inscriptions, bronze and bone workshops and the discovery of the [[Huanbei]] site on the north bank of the [[Huan River]].<ref name="yinxuArch4"/> One of the largest and oldest sites of Chinese archaeology, excavations here have laid the foundation for work across the country.

Four periods are recognized at the site based on pottery types.
They correlate approximately with oracle bone periods assigned by [[Dong Zuobin]], royal reigns and dates assigned by the [[Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project]] as follows:<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Date of Tomb 5 at Yinxu, Anyang: A Review Article |first=Robert L. |last=Thorp |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=43 |issue=3 |year=1981 |pages=239–246 |jstor=3249839 |doi=10.2307/3249839}} p. 241.</ref><ref>{{citation |author=XSZCP Group |publisher=世界图书出版公司 |location=Beijing |year=2000 |url=http://bbs.xhistory.net/read.php?tid=18985 |title=Xià-Shāng-Zhōu duàndài gōngchéng 1996—2000 nián jiēduàn chéngguǒ bàogào: Jiǎn běn |script-title=zh:夏商周断代工程1996—2000年阶段成果报告: 简本 |trans-title=The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project Report for the years 1996–2000 (abridged) |isbn=978-7-5062-4138-0}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Layer !! Oracle bone period !! Kings !! Approximate dates
|-
| rowspan="2" | Yinxu I || || || 1300–1250 BCE
|-
| rowspan="2" align="center" | I || rowspan="2" | [[Wu Ding]] || rowspan="2" | 1250–1192 BCE
|-
| rowspan="2" | Yinxu II
|-
| align="center" | II || [[Zu Geng of Shang|Zu Geng]], [[Zu Jia]] || rowspan="2" | 1191–1148 BCE
|-
| rowspan="2" | Yinxu III || align="center" | III || [[Lin Xin]], [[Geng Ding]]
|-
| align="center" | IV || [[Wu Yi of Shang|Wu Yi]], [[Wen Wu Ding]] || 1147–1102 BCE
|-
| Yinxu IV || align="center" | V || [[Di Yi]], [[King Zhou of Shang|Di Xin]] || 1101–1046 BCE
|}
For most of Yinxu I, the site was a small settlement. The first large buildings appeared in the later part of the period, together with oracle bone inscriptions, large-scale human sacrifice and chariot burials.{{sfnp|Bagley|1999|p=181}}
Dong also included kings [[Pan Geng]], [[Xiao Xin]] and [[King Xiao Yi|Xiao Yi]] in his oracle bone period I, but no inscriptions can be reliably assigned to pre-Wu Ding reigns.{{sfnp|Keightley|1985|pp=97–98, 203}}{{sfnp|Li|2002|p=330}}
Some scholars assign these kings to the nearby [[Huanbei]] urban site, which was roughly contemporaneous with the early part of Yinxu I. Excavation at the latter site is complicated by the fact that it lies under Anyang airport, and no inscriptions have been found.{{sfnp|Li|2013|pp=80–83}}

==Excavation sites==
At 30 square kilometers, Yinxu is the largest archaeological site in China. Excavations have uncovered over 80 rammed-earth foundation sites including palaces, shrines, tombs and workshops. From these remains archaeologists have been able to confirm that this was the spiritual and cultural center of the Shang dynasty.

[[File:Tomb Fu Hao YinXu.jpg|Burial pit at Tomb of Lady Fu Hao|thumb|right|230px]]
The best preserved of the Shang dynasty royal tombs unearthed at Yinxu is the [[Tomb of Fu Hao]]. The extraordinary [[Fu Hao|Lady Hao]] was a military leader and the wife of Shang King [[Wu Ding]]. The tomb was discovered in 1976 by [[Zheng Zhenxiang]] and has been dated to 1250&nbsp;BCE. It was completely undisturbed, having escaped the looting that had damaged the other tombs on the site, and in addition to the remains of the Queen the tomb was discovered to contain six dog skeletons, 16 human slave skeletons, and numerous grave goods of huge archaeological value. The tomb was thoroughly excavated and extensively restored and is now open to the public. The exhibition hall also features chariot pits where the earliest samples of animal-driven carts discovered by Chinese archaeology are on display.

== Historical importance ==
[[File:Houmuwu Ding or Simuwu Ding.jpg|thumb|The [[Houmuwu ding|Houmuwu ''ding'']]]]
Before the excavation of Yinxu, the Chinese historical record began in the first year of the subsequent Zhou dynasty, but the discovery of oracle bone inscriptions confirmed the historicity of the Shang, which had come under question. The framework of early ancient Chinese history was reconstructed, making it possible to assess the credibility of traditional accounts of Shang history.

The 150,000 oracle bones unearthed at Yinxu comprise much of the earliest evidence of written Chinese. Bronze and jade relics constitute evidence of the funeral customs of Yinxu, including human and animal sacrifice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhou |first=Yaogang |author-mask=Zhou Yaogang (周要港) |script-title=zh:文化遗产价值的评估——以安阳殷墟为例 |script-journal=zh:洛阳考古 |year=2020 |volume=2 |page=71 |language=zh}}</ref>

A large number of handicrafts and  workshops have been discovered at Yinxu. Patterns on utensils and bronzeware include those resembling animal faces, whorl patterns, and the ''[[taotie]]'' pattern. Large-scale bronzeware excavated at the site like the [[Houmuwu ding|Houmuwu ''ding'']] were cast by an elaborate section-mold process.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peng |first=Peng |title=Decentralizing the Origin of Civilization: Early Archaeological Efforts in China |journal=History of Humanities |year=2021 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=515–548 |doi=10.1086/715935 |s2cid=244133983 |issn=2379-3163}}</ref>

==Genetic studies==
A study of [[mitochondrial DNA]] (inherited in the maternal line) from Yinxu graves showed similarity with modern northern [[Han Chinese]], but significant differences from southern Han Chinese.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.academia.edu/5297877 |title=Poster: Preliminary Research on Hereditary Features of Yinxu Population |last1=Zeng |first1=Wen |last2=Li |first2=Jiawei |last3=Yue |first3=Hongbin |last4=Zhou |first4=Hui |last5=Zhu |first5=Hong |conference=82nd Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists |year=2013}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Periodization of the Shang dynasty]]
* [[Historical capitals of China]]
* [[Huanbei]]

== References ==
'''Citations'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

'''Works cited'''
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{citation |surname=Bagley |given=Robert |author-link=Robert Bagley |chapter=Shang archaeology |pages=124–231 |editor1-given=Michael |editor1-surname=Loewe |editor1-link=Michael Loewe |editor2-given=Edward L. |editor2-surname=Shaughnessy |editor2-link=Edward L. Shaughnessy |title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China |title-link=The Cambridge History of Ancient China |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-47030-8 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521470308.005 |postscript=.}}
* {{cite book |title=Oracle Bone Collections in the United States |surname=Chou |given=Hung-hsiang 周鴻翔 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |isbn=0-520-09534-0}}
* {{citation |surname=Keightley |given=David N. |author-link=David Keightley |title=Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1985 |orig-year=1978 |isbn=0-520-05455-5 |postscript=.}}
* {{citation |last=Keightley |first=David N. |author-mask=3 |chapter=The Shang: China's first historical dynasty |pages=232–291 |editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last=Loewe |editor2-first=Edward L. |editor2-last=Shaughnessy |title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-47030-8 |postscript=.}}
* {{citation |surname=Li |given=Xueqin |author-link=Li Xueqin |title=The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project: Methodology and Results |journal=Journal of East Asian Archaeology |year=2002 |volume=4 |pages=321–333 |doi=10.1163/156852302322454585 |postscript=.}}
* {{citation |surname=Li |given=Feng |author-link=Li Feng (sinologist) |title=Early China: A social and cultural history |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-521-71981-0 |postscript=.}}
* {{cite journal |first=Ershen |last=Lin |title=A Critical Review on the Rise of Civilization, the Formation of the State, and Early Slavery |version=draft |publisher=The Science & Philosophy Forums (2005–2008) |date=19 July 2007 |url=http://www.sciencechatforum.com/bulletin/viewtopic.php?t=7172&sid=f837c13276b97867e490fffc89749352 |access-date=3 March 2009}}
* {{cite book |last=Schinz |first=Alfred |title=The magic square: Cities in ancient China |publisher=Edition Axel Menges |pages=428 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhcRYkz-I3YC |isbn=3-930698-02-1 |year=1996}}
* {{cite book |title=Chinese History: A Manual |given=Endymion |surname=Wilkinson |author-link=Endymion Wilkinson |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |edition=2nd |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-674-00249-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC}}
* {{cite book |title=Ancient Chinese Writing, Oracle Bone Inscriptions from the Ruins of Yin |surname=Xu |given=Yahui (許雅惠 Hsu Ya-huei) |others=English translation by [[Mark Caltonhill]] and Jeff Moser |publisher=National Palace Museum |location=Taipei |year=2002 |isbn=978-957-562-420-0}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1114/ UNESCO World Heritage Center - Yinxu Listing]

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before = [[Qufu|Yan]]}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[Historical capitals of China|Capital of China]]
|years = 1350 BC – 1046&nbsp;BC
|dynasty = [[Shang dynasty|Shang]]}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Fenghao|Hao]]}}
{{end}}

{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{Prehistoric cultures of China}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ancient Chinese capitals]]
[[Category:Archaeological museums in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:Cities in Henan]]
[[Category:Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Henan]]
[[Category:Museums in Henan]]
[[Category:National archaeological parks of China]]
[[Category:Ruins in China]]
[[Category:Shang dynasty]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:Yinxu]]