Editing Zeigarnik effect

{{short description|Activity that has been interrupted may be more readily recalled}}
In [[psychology]], the '''Zeigarnik effect''', named after Lithuanian-Soviet psychologist [[Bluma Zeigarnik]], occurs when an activity that has been interrupted may be more readily [[Recall (memory)|recalled]]. It postulates that people remember unfinished or interrupted tasks better than completed tasks. In [[Gestalt psychology]], the Zeigarnik effect has been used to demonstrate the general presence of Gestalt phenomena: not just appearing as perceptual effects, but also present in cognition.

The Zeigarnik effect should not be confused with the [[Ovsiankina effect]], an urge to complete tasks previously initiated. [[Maria Ovsiankina]], a colleague of Zeigarnik, investigated the effect of task interruption on the tendency to resume the task at the next opportunity.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ovsiankina |first=Maria |date=January 1928 |title=Die Wiederaufnahme unterbrochener Handlungen |trans-title=Resumption of Interrupted Tasks |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00410261 |journal=[[Psychologische Forschung]] |volume=11 |issue=3/4 |pages=302–379 |doi=10.1007/BF00410261 |s2cid=147359058 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226082634/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00410261 |archive-date=2022-02-26 |lang=de|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Overview==
Lithuanian-Soviet psychologist [[Bluma Zeigarnik]] first studied the phenomenon after professor and [[Gestalt psychology|Gestalt]] psychologist [[Kurt Lewin]] noticed that a [[waiter]] had better recollections of still unpaid orders.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koffka |first=Kurt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jmXvLim5DmEC |title=Principles of Gestalt Psychology |page=334ff |date=1935 |publisher=London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.|isbn=978-0-415-86881-5 |oclc=2314654 |language=en}}</ref> However, after the completion of the task — after everyone had paid — the waiter was unable to remember any more details of the orders. Zeigarnik then designed a series of experiments to uncover the processes underlying the phenomenon. The research report was published in 1927, in the journal ''[[Psychological Research|Psychologische Forschung]].''<ref name="ellis">{{cite journal |last=Zeigarnik |first=Bluma |year=1938 |title=Das Behalten erledigter und unerledigter Handlungen |trans-title=On Finished and Unfinished Tasks |url=https://interruptions.net/literature/Zeigarnik-PsychologischeForschung27.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Psychologische Forschung]] |volume=9 |pages=1–85 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224051001/https://interruptions.net/literature/Zeigarnik-PsychologischeForschung27.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2021 |lang=de}} pp. 300-314 in [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.198039|W. D. Ellis (Ed.), ''A Sourcebook of Gestalt Psychology'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.]]</ref>

The advantage of remembrance can be explained by looking at [[Field theory (psychology)|Lewin's field theory]]: a task that has already been started establishes a task-specific tension, which improves cognitive accessibility of the relevant contents.<ref name=Lewin1935>{{Cite book |last=Lewin |first=Kurt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxlHAAAAMAAJ |title=A Dynamic Theory of Personality: Selected Papers |date=1935 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. |isbn=978-0-07-037451-5 |oclc=760465262 |page=243ff |language=en |author-link=Kurt Lewin}}</ref> The tension is relieved upon completion of the task, but persists if it is interrupted. Through continuous tension, the content is made more easily accessible, and can be easily remembered.<ref name=Lewin1935/>

The Zeigarnik effect suggests that students who suspend their study to perform unrelated activities (such as studying a different subject or playing a game), will remember material better than students who complete study sessions without a break (McKinney 1935; Zeigarnik 1927).<ref name="Bluma">{{Cite web |last=Zeigarnik |first=Bluma |title=Das Behalten erledigter und unerledigter Handlungen |trans-title=Remembering completed and uncompleted actions |lang=de |pages=300–314 |year=1927 |url=https://interruptions.net/literature/Zeigarnik-PsychologischeForschung27.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224051001/https://interruptions.net/literature/Zeigarnik-PsychologischeForschung27.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2021 }}</ref><ref name"McK">{{cite journal |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.66.8781&rep=rep1&type=pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505200606/https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.66.8781&rep=rep1&type=pdf |archive-date=5 May 2019 |last=McKinney |first=Fred |title=Studies in the Retention of Interrupted Learning Activities |journal=[[Journal of Comparative Psychology]] |volume=19 |number=2 |date=April 1935|pages=265–296|doi=10.1037/h0056005 |citeseerx=10.1.1.66.8781 }}</ref>

==Harden rule==
Sportswriter Matt Moore has suggested that the Zeigarnik effect could explain the widespread criticism of the [[National Basketball Association]] in allowing [[free throws]] for a player "chucking it up whenever a guy comes near them".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Moore |first1=Matt |title=How the NBA's newly imposed 'Harden Rule' will impact James Harden this season |url=https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/how-the-nbas-newly-imposed-harden-rule-will-impact-james-harden-this-season/ |access-date=21 April 2020 |work=CBSSports.com |date=4 October 2017 |language=en |archive-date=6 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206224510/https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/how-the-nbas-newly-imposed-harden-rule-will-impact-james-harden-this-season/ |url-status=live }}</ref>  There is a stoppage of play with each foul. When repeatedly done, it is felt to build up a [[cognitive bias]] against this move. The criticism necessitated a rule change penalizing this activity, known as the Harden Rule, named after its most prominent user, [[James Harden]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Boone|first1=Kyle|title=The NBA is finally cracking down on James Harden's foul-drawing antics|url=https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/the-nba-is-finally-cracking-down-on-james-hardens-foul-drawing-antics/|website=CBSSports.com|access-date=October 4, 2017|date=September 22, 2017|language=en|archive-date=October 5, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005000212/https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/the-nba-is-finally-cracking-down-on-james-hardens-foul-drawing-antics/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=NBA implementing 'Zaza Pachulia,' 'James Harden' rules|url=https://nba.nbcsports.com/2017/09/21/nba-implementing-zaza-pachulia-james-harden-rules/|website=NBCSports.com|access-date=October 4, 2017|date=September 21, 2017|language=en|archive-date=October 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004191239/https://nba.nbcsports.com/2017/09/21/nba-implementing-zaza-pachulia-james-harden-rules/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Criticism==
The reliability of the effect has been a matter of some controversy.<ref name="Einstein2003">{{cite journal|last1=Einstein|first1=Gilles O.|last2=McDaniel|first2=Mark A.|last3=Williford|first3=Carrie L.|last4=Pagan|first4=Jason L.|last5=Dismukes|first5=R. Key|title=Forgetting of intentions in demanding situations is rapid.|journal=[[Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied]] |date=2003|volume=9|issue=3|pages=147–162|doi=10.1037/1076-898X.9.3.147 |pmid=14570509|url=https://human-factors.arc.nasa.gov/flightcognition/Publications/JEPapplied03.pdf |quote=[...] there is controversy regarding the reliability of the Zeigarnik effect [...]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304230412/https://human-factors.arc.nasa.gov/flightcognition/Publications/JEPapplied03.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-04|citeseerx=10.1.1.5.4816}}</ref>

Several studies, performed later in other countries, attempting to replicate Zeigarnik's experiment, failed to find any significant differences in recall between "finished" and "unfinished" (interrupted) tasks, for example Van Bergen (1968).<ref>{{Cite Q | Q91935831 }}</ref>

==Usages==

=== Software ===
The Zeigarnik effect is used in some [[Software as a service|SaaS]] (Software as a service) systems to [[User onboarding|onboard users]] faster and effectively.{{cn|date=December 2023}}

Usually, it is implemented as user interactions [[gamification]]. Examples include:

* Progress trackers which inform users of how close they are to complete a task. For example, when users see a message like "Your profile is 64% complete", they are more likely to spend a few minutes on providing all missing details.
* Checklists to provide a clear step-by-step on-boarding flow.

==See also== 
* {{annotated link|List of cognitive biases}}
* {{annotated link|Cliffhanger}}
* {{annotated link|Closure (psychology)}}
* {{annotated link|Procrastination}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}


==Further reading==
===Zeigarnik===
* {{cite journal |last=Zeigarnik |first=Bluma |title=Das Behalten erledigter und unerledigter Handlungen |trans-title=On Finished and Unfinished Tasks |lang=de |journal=[[Psychologische Forschung]] |year=1938 |volume=9 |pages=1–85 |url=https://interruptions.net/literature/Zeigarnik-PsychologischeForschung27.pdf}} pp. 300-314 in [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.198039 W. D. Ellis (Ed.), ''A Sourcebook of Gestalt Psychology'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.]

===Others===
* Burke W.W., "A Perspective on the Field of Organization Development and Change: The Zeigarnik Effect", ''The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science'', Vol.47, No.2, (June 2011), pp.143-167.
*{{cite book|last1=Denmark|first1=Florence L.|editor1-last=Weiner|editor1-first=Irving B.|editor2-last=Craighead|editor2-first=W. Edward|title=The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology|date=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780470170236|pages=1873–1874|edition=4th|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pUSG1BONmekC&pg=PA1873|language=en|chapter=Zeigarnik Effect|doi=10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0924}}
* Mazur, Elena, "The Zeigarnik Effect and the Concept of Unfinished Business in Gestalt Therapy", ''British Gestalt Journal'', Vol.5, No.1, (1996), pp.18-23.
* Oyama, Yoshinori, Manalo, Emmanuel & Nakatan, Yoshihide (2018), "The Hemingway effect: How failing to finish a task can have a positive effect on motivation", ''Thinking Skills and Creativity''. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2018.01.001 doi=10.1016/j.tsc.2018.01.001]
* Savitsky, K., Medvec, V.H. & Gilovich, T., "Remembering and Regretting: The Zeigarnik Effect and the Cognitive Availability of Regrettable Actions and Inactions", ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', Vol.23, No.3, (March 1997), pp.248-257. [https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297233004 doi=10.1177/0146167297233004]
* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christine_Syrek/publication/301562131_Zeigarnik%27s_Sleepless_Nights_How_Unfinished_Tasks_at_the_End_of_the_Week_Impair_Employee_Sleep_on_the_Weekend_Through_Rumination/links/590854bc0f7e9bc0d59b9f5a/Zeigarniks-Sleepless-Nights-How-Unfinished-Tasks-at-the-End-of-the-Week-Impair-Employee-Sleep-on-the-Weekend-Through-Rumination.pdf Syrek, C.J., Weigelt, O., Peifer, C. & Antoni, C.H., "Zeigarnik's sleepless nights: How unfinished tasks at the end of the week impair employee sleep on the weekend through rumination", ''Journal of Occupational Health Psychology'', Vol.22, No.2, (April 2017), pp.225-238.]
* [https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1512014/100519_OCR_gescand_boek.pdf Van Bergen, Annie, ''Task Interruption'', North-Holland, (Amsterdam), 1968.]
* [https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/39837388/1968_-_Achievement_Motivation_and_The_Recall.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1535448337&Signature=AlF19plwRBWg04KW%2BIb7wOdjIn4%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DAchievement_Motivation_and_the_Recall_of.pdf Weiner, B., Johnson, P.B. & Mehrabian, A., "Achievement Motivation and the Recall of Incomplete and Completed Exam Questions", ''Journal of Educational Psychology'', Vol.59, No.3, (June 1968), pp.181-185.]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050204020835/https://recallplus.com/Breaks.asp Study advice]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080109120727/https://www.actionplan.com/z-effect.html Marketing usage]

[[Category:Memory]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Cognitive biases]]
[[Category:Learning]]