SPQR

SPQR or S.P.Q.R., an initialism for {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}; Template:Translation), is an emblematic phrase referring to the government of the Roman Republic. It appears on documents made public by an inscription in stone or metal, in dedications of monuments and public works, and on some Roman currency.

The full phrase appears in Roman political, legal, and historical literature, such as the speeches of Cicero and the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Books from the Founding of the City) of Livy.

Translation

{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= {{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= Template:Ambox }} }} In Latin, Senātus is a nominative singular noun meaning "Senate". Populusque is compounded from the nominative noun Populus, "the People", and -que, an enclitic particle meaning "and" which connects the two nominative nouns. The last word, Rōmānus ("Roman"), is an adjective modifying the whole of Senātus Populusque: the "Roman Senate and People", taken as a whole. Thus, the phrase is translated literally as "The Roman Senate and People", or more freely as "The Senate and People of Rome".

Historical context

{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= {{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= Template:Ambox }} }} The title's date of establishment is unknown, but it first appears in inscriptions of the Late Republic, from around 80 BC onwards. Previously, the official name of the Roman state, as evidenced on coins, was simply ROMA. The abbreviation last appears on coins of Constantine the Great (ruled 312–337 AD), the first Roman emperor to support Christianity.Template:Citation needed

This signature continued in use under the Roman Empire. The emperors were considered the de jure representatives of the people even though the senātūs consulta, or decrees of the Senate, were made at the de facto pleasure of the emperor.Template:Citation needed

Populus Romanus in Roman literature is a phrase meaning the government of the People. When the Romans named governments of foreign states, they used populus in the singular or plural, such as populi Priscorum Latinorum, "the governments of the Old Latins". Romanus is the established adjective used to distinguish the Romans, as in civis Romanus, "Roman citizen".Template:Citation needed

The Roman people appear very often in law and history in such phrases as dignitas, maiestas, auctoritas, libertas populi Romani, the "dignity, majesty, authority, freedom of the Roman people". They were a populus liber, "a free people". There was an exercitus, imperium, iudicia, honores, consules, voluntas of this same populus: "the army, rule, judgments, offices, consuls and will of the Roman people". They appear in early Latin as Popolus and Poplus, so the habit of thinking of themselves as free and sovereign was quite ingrained.Template:Citation needed

The Romans believed that all authority came from the people. It could be said that similar language seen in more modern political and social revolutions directly comes from this usage. People in this sense meant the whole government. The latter, however, was essentially divided into the aristocratic Senate, whose will was executed by the consuls and praetors, and the comitia centuriata, "committee of the centuries", whose will came to be safeguarded by the Tribunes.Template:Citation needed

One of the ways the emperor Commodus (180–192) paid for his donatives and mass entertainments was to tax the senatorial order, and on many inscriptions, the traditional order is provocatively reversed (Populus Senatusque...).Template:Citation needed

Medieval use

{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= {{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= Template:Ambox }} }} Beginning in 1184, the Commune of Rome struck coins in the name of the SENATVS P Q R. From 1414 until 1517, the Roman Senate struck coins with a shield inscribed SPQR.

Modern use

File:Insigne Romanum coronatum.svg

Modern coat of arms of Rome municipality

Even in contemporary usage, SPQR is still used in the municipal coat of arms of Rome and as abbreviation for the comune of Rome in official documents.<ref name="romeHome">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="revocaDeleghe">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Italians have long used a different and humorous expansion of this abbreviation, "Sono Pazzi Questi Romani" (Template:Lit).<ref>See, e.g. Template:Cite book</ref> SPQR is also part of the coat of arms of the Capital Military Command of the Italian army (Italian: Comando Militare Capitale).

In business, in English-speaking countries, SPQR is sometimes (humorously) used to mean "Small Profits, Quick Returns", often by people who have studied Latin at school.<ref>Template:OED</ref>

Civic references

Template:More citations needed section SPQTemplate:Math is sometimes used as an assertion of municipal pride and civic rights. The Italian town of Reggio Emilia, for instance, has SPQR in its coat of arms, standing for {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. There are historic usages of the deployment of the "SPQTemplate:Math" format in various other cities and towns:

City	Country	SPQTemplate:Math	Latin	Where has it been used	Image
Alkmaar	Template:Flag	SPQA		On the façade of the Waag building
Amsterdam	Template:Flag	SPQA	lang}}<ref name=Amsterdam/>	At the Stadsschouwburg theater on Leidseplein<ref name="mforamsterdam">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> and some of the bridges<ref name=Amsterdam>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || File:Imperial Crown and the letters SPQA on bridge detal in Amsterdam.jpg
Antwerp	Template:Flag	SPQA	lang}}	On Antwerp City Hall and other public buildings and schools<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || File:SPQA - the Antwerp Take-Off on Antiquity - panoramio.jpg
Ascoli Piceno	Template:Flag	SPQA	lang}}	On the wall above the south loggia of the Piazza del Popolo
Basel	Template:Flag	SPQB	lang}}	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Benevento	Template:Flag	SPQB<ref name="fotw"/>	lang}}<ref name="fotw"/>	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Bologna	Template:Flag	SPQB	lang}}	On the Fountain of Neptune
Bremen	Template:Flag	SPQB		In Bremen City Hall.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Bruges	Template:Flag	SPQB		citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Brussels	Template:Flag	SPQB	lang}} (of the city) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (of the country)	Repeatedly on the Palace of Justice,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> over the main stage of the Royal Theatre of La Monnaie,Template:Citation needed and on the ceiling of the hemicycle of the Belgian Senate in the Palace of the Nation. ||
Capua	Template:Flag	SPQC
Catania	Template:Flag	SPQC		On manhole covers
Chicago	Template:Flag	SPQC	lang}} Chicago	On the George N. Leighton Cook County Criminal Courthouse<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Dublin	Template:Flag	SPQH	lang}}	On the City Hall, built in 1769
Florianópolis	Template:Flag	SPQF<ref name="fotw"/>	lang}}<ref name="fotw"/>
Franeker	Template:Flag	SPQF		citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Freising	Template:Flag	SPQF		Above the door of the town hall
Ghent	Template:Flag	SPQG	lang}}	On the opera house, theatre and some other major buildings, inscribed on a shield on coins struck in Ghent in 1583, during the Dutch Revolt<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>	File:Gent Sint-Christoffelkapel SPQG.jpg
Groningen	Template:Flag	SPQG		Above the entrance of the Der Aa-kerk	File:Groningen (stad), Der Aa-kerk in Groningen. 13-06-2022. (actm.) 01.jpg
The Hague	Template:Flag	SPQH		Above the stage in the Koninklijke Schouwburg
Hamburg	Template:Flag	SPQH		On a door in the city hall (Hamburg Rathaus)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || File:2011-06-22-hh-buergerschaft-by-RalfR-04.jpg
Hanover	Template:Flag
Haarlem	Template:Flag	SPQH		On the façade of the town hall at the "Grote Markt"
Hasselt	Template:Flag	SPQH
Istanbul	Template:Flag	SPQC	lang}}
Kortrijk	Template:Flag	SPQC	lang}}	On the City hall
Kraków	Template:Flag	SPQC	Senatus Populusque Cracoviensis	Over the Waza Gate in Wawel Castle	File:Kraków 1644.jpg
La Plata	Template:Flag	SPQR		On a monument outside of the city's casco urbano
Leeuwarden	Template:Flag	SPQL	lang}}	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Leuven	Template:Flag	SPQL	Senatus Populusque Leuvensis	Over the painting of Jesus in the back reception room inside Leuven Town Hall
Liverpool	Template:Nowrap	SPQL	lang}}	On various gold doors in St George's Hall<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
City of London	Template:Flag	SPQL	lang}}	On historic variants of the City's coat of arms<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> ||
Lübeck	Template:Flag	SPQL	lang}}	On the Holstentor<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || File:Luebeck Holtstentor Detail E 2879 201409.jpg
Lucerne	Template:Flag
Madrid	Template:Flag	SPQM	lang}}	On the Template:Ill, built in 1780
Milan	Template:Flag	SPQM		The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V struck coins at Milan with the inscription {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Modica	Template:Flag	SPQM		citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Molfetta	Template:Flag	SPQM		citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Naples	Template:Flag	SPQN	lang}}	Inscribed on a shield on coins struck during Masaniello's 1647 revolt<ref>Italian Coinage Medieval to Modern, The Collection of Ercole Gnecchi, coin 3683</ref>
Noto	Template:Flag	SPQN	lang}}	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> and the façade of Noto Cathedral. ||
Nuremberg	Template:Flag	SPQN	lang}}	On the Charles Bridge (one of the major bridges over river Pegnitz in the inner city)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || File:Nürnberg Karlsbrücke Obelisk Chronogramm.jpg
Oudenburg	Template:Flag	SPQO	lang}}	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Olomouc	Template:Flag	SPQO<ref name="fotw"/>	lang}}	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || File:Coat of arms of Olomouc, city in the Czech Republic.svg
Palermo	Template:Flag	SPQP		citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Penne, Abruzzo	Template:Flag	SPQP		<ref name="Flickr.com"/>
Pontecorvo	Template:Flag	SPQF		Used as motto for municipal coat of arms
Rieti	Template:Flag	SPQS	lang}}	On the coat of arms, present also in the modern composite Lazio coat-of-arms
Rotterdam	Template:Flag	SPQR		Mural in the Burgerzaal of Rotterdam City Hall	File:20080423 Rotterdam Stadhuis Burgerzaal Pricker SPQR1.jpg
Severn Beach	Template:Flag	SPQR		On the crest of Pilning & Severn Beach Parish Council
Seville	Template:Flag	SPQH	lang}}	On the historic banner of the city
Siena	Template:Flag	SPQS		On the base of a statue of the Capitoline Wolf<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Solothurn	Template:Flag	SPQS	lang}}	On the Cathedral of St Ursus and Victor
Terracina	Template:Flag	SPQT		<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Tivoli, Lazio	Template:Flag	SPQT		citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Toruń	Template:Flag	SPQT	Senatus Populusque Thorunensis	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Valencia	Template:Flag	SPQV	lang}}	In several places and buildings, including the Silk Exchange<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> and the University of Valencia Historic Building.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Verviers	Template:Flag	SPQV		citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> ||
Vienna	Template:Flag	SPQV<ref name="fotw"/>	lang}}<ref name="fotw"/>	Above the main entrance of the civic armoury (Bürgerliches Zeughaus) at Am Hof, with a dedication to Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI (Imperante Carolo VI. instauravit)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || File:Am Hof Zeughaus.jpg
Winschoten	Template:Flag	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} || On the façade of the municipal office (stadhuis) of Oldambt<ref name="Winschoter-Archief-SPQW"/> || File:Senatus Populesque Winschotanus (SPQW), Winschoten (2024) 04.jpg

Popular culture

SPQR is often used to represent the Roman Empire and Roman Republic, such as in video games and movies. In the 2000 movie Gladiator, the Roman general Maximus (portrayed by Russell Crowe) has "SPQR" tattooed on his upper arm, which he removes by scraping after he is sold into slavery.

The humorous modern Italian expansion Sono Pazzi Questi Romani (Template:Lit) is used in the French Ils sont fous, ces Romains ! (Template:Lit) as the catchphrase of the character Obelix in the French comic album series Asterix, and the Italian original/retranslation (translating back to the original) Sono Pazzi Questi Romani is used in the Italian translation of Asterix, rendered with capitals to make the acronym clear;<ref>See for example the image at r/bandedessinee "SPQR", Reddit</ref> note that Albert Uderzo, the co-creator of Asterix, was born to Italian immigrants and was exposed to Italian as a child.

Gallery

• Arch.of.Titus-Inscription.jpg

  The inscription in the Arch of Titus

• Rome SPQR 1979-08-06.jpg

  Manhole cover in Rome with SPQR inscription

• Stemma reggio emilia municipio.jpg

  SPQR in the coat of arms of Reggio Emilia

• 3492 - Milano - Galleria Vittorio Emanuele - Stemma di Roma - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 22-June-2007.jpg

  Detail from the mosaic floor in the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan

• Wenceslas Hollar - Superiority of the warrior class (State 2).jpg

  "Superiority of the warrior class", by Wenceslaus Hollar

• Arch of Septimius Severus Top Inscription.JPG

  Arch of Septimius Severus top inscription

• Fellini plaque, Via Veneto.jpg

  Dedicatory plaque to Federico Fellini on Via Veneto

• Wien Oberes Belvedere Sala terrena Stuckdekor.jpg

  Field symbol (right) at the Belvedere palace, Vienna

Further reading

• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Cite journal

External links

• Instances of "Roman Senate and People" on Perseus.edu
• Lewis & Short dictionary entry for populus on Perseus.edu
• Polybius on the Senate and People (6.16)