Template:Short description Template:Distinguish Template:Redirect-distinguish Template:Pp Template:Pp-move Template:Use dmy dates {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other
RussianTemplate:Efn is an East Slavic language belonging to the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. It is one of the four extant East Slavic languages,Template:Efn and is the native language of the Russians. It was the de facto and de jure<ref>Since 1990</ref> official language of the former Soviet Union.<ref name="USSR">Constitution and Fundamental Law of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 1977: Section II, Chapter 6, Article 36</ref> Russian has remained an official language of the Russian Federation, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, and is still commonly used as a lingua franca in Ukraine, Moldova, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and to a lesser extent in the Baltic states and Israel.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="demoscope">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Russian has over 253 million total speakers worldwide.<ref name="e28"/> It is the most spoken native language in Europe,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the most spoken Slavic language,<ref name="language"/> as well as the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia.<ref name="language">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is the world's seventh-most spoken language by number of native speakers, and the world's ninth-most spoken language by total number of speakers.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> one of the six official languages of the United Nations,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> as well as the fourth most widely used language on the Internet.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Russian is written using the Russian alphabet of the Cyrillic script; it distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without—the so-called "soft" and "hard" sounds. Almost every consonant has a hard or soft counterpart, and the distinction is a prominent feature of the language, which is usually shown in writing not by a change of the consonant but rather by changing the following vowel. Another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Stress, which is often unpredictable, is not normally indicated orthographically,Template:Sfn though an optional acute accent may be used to mark stress – such as to distinguish between homographic words (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} [{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'lock'] and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} [{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'castle']), or to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words or names.
ClassificationEdit
Russian is an East Slavic language of the wider Indo-European family. It is a descendant of Old East Slavic, a language used in Kievan Rus', which was a loose conglomerate of East Slavic tribes from the late 9th to the mid-13th centuries. From the point of view of spoken language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the other three languages in the East Slavic branch. In many places in eastern and southern Ukraine and throughout Belarus, these languages are spoken interchangeably, and in certain areas traditional bilingualism resulted in language mixtures such as Surzhyk in eastern Ukraine and Trasianka in Belarus. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although it vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is sometimes considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. Also, Russian has notable lexical similarities with Bulgarian due to a common Church Slavonic influence on both languages, but because of later interaction in the 19th and 20th centuries, Bulgarian grammar differs markedly from Russian.Template:Sfn
Over the course of centuries, the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have also been influenced by Western and Central European languages such as Greek, Latin, Polish, Dutch, German, French, Italian, and English,<ref>Template:Cite EB1911</ref> and to a lesser extent the languages to the south and the east: Uralic, Turkic,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Persian,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Arabic, and Hebrew.<ref>Colin Baker, Sylvia Prys Jones Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education Template:Webarchive pp 219 Multilingual Matters, 1998 Template:ISBN</ref>
According to the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, Russian is classified as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers, requiring approximately 1,100 hours of immersion instruction to achieve intermediate fluency.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Standard RussianEdit
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Feudal divisions and conflicts created obstacles between the Russian principalities before and especially during Mongol rule. This strengthened dialectal differences, and for a while, prevented the emergence of a standardized national language. The formation of the unified and centralized Russian state in the 15th and 16th centuries, and the gradual re-emergence of a common political, economic, and cultural space created the need for a common standard language. The initial impulse for standardization came from the government bureaucracy for the lack of a reliable tool of communication in administrative, legal, and judicial affairs became an obvious practical problem. The earliest attempts at standardizing Russian were made based on the so-called Moscow official or chancery language, during the 15th to 17th centuries.<ref name="Kadochnikov-2016"/> Since then, the trend of language policy in Russia has been standardization in both the restricted sense of reducing dialectical barriers between ethnic Russians, and the broader sense of expanding the use of Russian alongside or in favour of other languages.<ref name="Kadochnikov-2016">Template:Citation</ref>
The current standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – "sovremenny russky literaturny yazyk"). It arose at the beginning of the 18th century with the modernization reforms of the Russian state under the rule of Peter the Great and developed from the Moscow (Middle or Central Russian) dialect substratum under the influence of some of the previous century's Russian chancery language.<ref name="Kadochnikov-2016" />
Prior to the Bolshevik Revolution, the spoken form of the Russian language was that of the nobility and the urban bourgeoisie. Russian peasants, the great majority of the population, continued to speak in their own dialects. However, the peasants' speech was never systematically studied, as it was generally regarded by philologists as simply a source of folklore and an object of curiosity.<ref>Nakhimovsky,Template:NbsA.Template:NbsD.Template:Nbs(2019).Template:NbsThe Language of Russian Peasants in the Twentieth Century: A Linguistic Analysis and Oral History.Template:NbsUnited Kingdom:Template:NbsLexington Books. (Chapter 1)</ref> This was acknowledged by the noted Russian dialectologist Nikolai Karinsky, who toward the end of his life wrote: "Scholars of Russian dialects mostly studied phonetics and morphology. Some scholars and collectors compiled local dictionaries. We have almost no studies of lexical material or the syntax of Russian dialects."<ref>Nakhimovsky,Template:NbsA.Template:NbsD.Template:Nbs(2019).Template:NbsThe Language of Russian Peasants in the Twentieth Century: A Linguistic Analysis and Oral History.Template:NbsUnited Kingdom:Template:NbsLexington Books. (p.2)</ref>
After 1917, Marxist linguists had no interest in the multiplicity of peasant dialects and regarded their language as a relic of the rapidly disappearing past that was not worthy of scholarly attention. Nakhimovsky quotes the Soviet academicians A.M Ivanov and L.P Yakubinsky, writing in 1930:
The language of peasants has a motley diversity inherited from feudalism. On its way to becoming proletariat peasantry brings to the factory and the industrial plant their local peasant dialects with their phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary, and the very process of recruiting workers from peasants and the mobility of the worker population generate another process: the liquidation of peasant inheritance by way of leveling the particulars of local dialects. On the ruins of peasant multilingual, in the context of developing heavy industry, a qualitatively new entity can be said to emerge—the general language of the working class... capitalism has the tendency of creating the general urban language of a given society.<ref>Ibid.(p.3)</ref>
Geographic distributionEdit
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In 2010, there were 259.8 million speakers of Russian in the world: in Russia – 137.5 million, in the CIS and Baltic countries – 93.7 million, in Eastern Europe – 12.9 million, Western Europe – 7.3 million, Asia – 2.7 million, in the Middle East and North Africa – 1.3 million, Sub-Saharan Africa – 0.1 million, Latin America – 0.2 million, U.S., Canada, Australia, and New Zealand – 4.1 million speakers. Therefore, the Russian language is the seventh-largest in the world by the number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi-Urdu, Spanish, French, Arabic, and Portuguese.<ref name="demoscope.ru">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue-rating-2018">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a popular choice for both Russian as a second language (RSL) and native speakers in Russia, and in many former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics.<ref name=gallup2008>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
EuropeEdit
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In Belarus, Russian is a second state language alongside Belarusian per the Constitution of Belarus.<ref name="fundeh1"/> 77% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 67% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.<ref name="demoscope329">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to the 2019 Belarusian census, out of 9,413,446 inhabitants of the country, 5,094,928 (54.1% of the total population) named Belarusian as their native language, with 61.2% of ethnic Belarusians and 54.5% of ethnic Poles declaring Belarusian as their native language. In everyday life in the Belarusian society the Russian language prevails, so according to the 2019 census 6,718,557 people (71.4% of the total population) stated that they speak Russian at home, for ethnic Belarusians this share is 61.4%, for Russians — 97.2%, for Ukrainians — 89.0%, for Poles — 52.4%, and for Jews — 96.6%; 2,447,764 people (26.0% of the total population) stated that the language they usually speak at home is Belarusian, among ethnic Belarusians this share is 28.5%; the highest share of those who speak Belarusian at home is among ethnic Poles — 46.0%.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In Estonia, Russian is spoken by 29.6% of the population, according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook,<ref name=bookoffact/> and is officially considered a foreign language.<ref name="fundeh1"/> School education in the Russian language is a very contentious point in Estonian politics, and in 2022, the parliament approved a bill to close up all Russian language schools and kindergartens by the school year. The transition to only Estonian language schools and kindergartens will start in the 2024–2025 school year.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In Latvia, Russian is officially considered a foreign language.<ref name="fundeh1"/> 55% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 26% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.<ref name="demoscope329"/> On 18 February 2012, Latvia held a constitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Starting in 2019, instruction in Russian will be gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, and in general instruction in Latvian public high schools.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref> On 29 September 2022, Saeima passed in the final reading amendments that state that all schools and kindergartens in the country are to transition to education in Latvian. From 2025, all children will be taught in Latvian only.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> On 28 September 2023, Latvian deputies approved The National Security Concept, according to which from 1 January 2026, all content created by Latvian public media (including LSM) should be only in Latvian or a language that "belongs to the European cultural space". The financing of Russian-language content by the state will cease, which the concept says create a "unified information space". However, one inevitable consequence would be the closure of public media broadcasts in Russian on LTV and Latvian Radio, as well as the closure of LSM's Russian-language service.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In Lithuania, Russian has no official or legal status, but the use of the language has some presence in certain areas. A large part of the population, especially the older generations, can speak Russian as a foreign language.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, English has replaced Russian as lingua franca in Lithuania and around 80% of young people speak English as their first foreign language.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In contrast to the other two Baltic states, Lithuania has a relatively small Russian-speaking minority (5.0% Template:As of).<ref name="andrlik">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to the 2011 Lithuanian census, Russian was the native language for 7.2% of the population.<ref>Statistics Lithuania census 2011: {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In Moldova, Russian was considered to be the language of interethnic communication under a Soviet-era law.<ref name="fundeh1"/> On 21 January 2021, the Constitutional Court of Moldova declared the law unconstitutional and deprived Russian of the status of the language of interethnic communication.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> 50% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 19% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.<ref name="demoscope329"/> According to the 2014 Moldovan census, Russians accounted for 4.1% of Moldova's population, 9.4% of the population declared Russian as their native language, and 14.5% said they usually spoke Russian.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
According to the 2010 census in Russia, Russian language skills were indicated by 138 million people (99.4% of the respondents), while according to the 2002 census – 142.6 million people (99.2% of the respondents).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In Ukraine, Russian is a significant minority language. According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly, in 2004 there were 14,400,000 native speakers of Russian in the country, and 29 million active speakers.<ref name="demoscope251">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 65% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 38% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.<ref name="demoscope329"/> On 5 September 2017, Ukraine's Parliament passed a new education law which requires all schools to teach at least partially in Ukrainian, with provisions while allow indigenous languages and languages of national minorities to be used alongside the national language.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The law faced criticism from officials in Russia and Hungary.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The 2019 Law of Ukraine "On protecting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language" gives priority to the Ukrainian language in more than 30 spheres of public life: in particular in public administration, media, education, science, culture, advertising, services. The law does not regulate private communication.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A poll conducted in March 2022 by RATING in the territory controlled by Ukraine found that 83% of the respondents believe that Ukrainian should be the only state language of Ukraine. This opinion dominates in all macro-regions, age and language groups. On the other hand, before the war, almost a quarter of Ukrainians were in favour of granting Russian the status of the state language, while after the beginning of Russia's invasion the support for the idea dropped to just 7%. In peacetime, the idea of raising the status of Russian was traditionally supported by residents of the south and east. But even in these regions, only a third of the respondents were in favour, and after Russia's full-scale invasion, their number dropped by almost half.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to the survey carried out by RATING in August 2023 in the territory controlled by Ukraine and among the refugees, almost 60% of the polled usually speak Ukrainian at home, about 30% – Ukrainian and Russian, only 9% – Russian. Since March 2022, the use of Russian in everyday life has been noticeably decreasing. For 82% of respondents, Ukrainian is their mother tongue, and for 16%, Russian is their mother tongue. IDPs and refugees living abroad are more likely to use both languages for communication or speak Russian. Nevertheless, more than 70% of IDPs and refugees consider Ukrainian to be their native language.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In the 20th century, Russian was a mandatory language taught in the schools of the members of the old Warsaw Pact and in other countries that used to be satellites of the USSR. According to the Eurobarometer 2005 survey,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> fluency in Russian remains fairly high (20–40%) in some countries, in particular former Warsaw Pact countries.
CaucasusEdit
In Armenia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.<ref name="fundeh1"/> 30% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 2% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.<ref name="demoscope329"/>
In Azerbaijan, Russian has no official status, but is a lingua franca of the country.<ref name="fundeh1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 26% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 5% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.<ref name="demoscope329"/>
In Georgia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.<ref name="fundeh1"/> Russian is the language of 9% of the population according to the World Factbook.<ref>Georgia Template:Webarchive. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.</ref> Ethnologue cites Russian as the country's de facto working language.<ref name="ethn">Template:Ethnologue21</ref>
AsiaEdit
In China, Russian has no official status, but it is spoken by the small Russian communities in the northeastern Heilongjiang and the northwestern Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. Russian was also the main foreign language taught in school in China between 1949 and 1964.
In Kazakhstan, Russian is not a state language, but according to article 7 of the Constitution of Kazakhstan its usage enjoys equal status to that of the Kazakh language in state and local administration.<ref name="fundeh1"/> The 2009 census reported that 10,309,500 people, or 84.8% of the population aged 15 and above, could read and write well in Russian, and understand the spoken language.<ref name=kazcensus>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In October 2023, Kazakhstan drafted a media law aimed at increasing the use of the Kazakh language over Russian, the law stipulates that the share of the state language on television and radio should increase from 50% to 70%, at a rate of 5% per year, starting in 2025.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In Kyrgyzstan, Russian is a co-official language per article 5 of the Constitution of Kyrgyzstan.<ref name="fundeh1"/> The 2009 census states that 482,200 people speak Russian as a native language, or 8.99% of the population.<ref name=kyrcen>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Additionally, 1,854,700 residents of Kyrgyzstan aged 15 and above fluently speak Russian as a second language, or 49.6% of the population in the age group.<ref name=kyrcen/>
In Tajikistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication under the Constitution of Tajikistan and is permitted in official documentation.<ref name="fundeh1"/> 28% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 7% used it as the main language with family, friends or at work.<ref name="demoscope329"/> The World Factbook notes that Russian is widely used in government and business.<ref name="bookoffact">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In Turkmenistan, Russian lost its status as the official lingua franca in 1996.<ref name="fundeh1"/> Among 12%<ref name=bookoffact/> of the population who grew up in the Soviet era can speak Russian, other generations of citizens that do not have any knowledge of Russian. Primary and secondary education by Russian is almost non-existent.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In Uzbekistan, Russian is spoken by 14.2% of the population according to an undated estimate from the World Factbook.<ref name=bookoffact/>
In 2005, Russian was the most widely taught foreign language in Mongolia,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and was compulsory in Year 7 onward as a second foreign language in 2006.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Around 1.5Template:Nbsmillion Israelis spoke Russian Template:As of.<ref>К визиту Нетаньяху: что Россия может получить от экономики Израиля Template:Webarchive Алексей Голубович, Forbes Russia, 9 March 2017</ref> The Israeli press and websites regularly publish material in Russian and there are Russian newspapers, television stations, schools, and social media outlets based in the country.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> There is an Israeli TV channel mainly broadcasting in Russian with Israel Plus. See also Russian language in Israel.
Russian is also spoken as a second language by a small number of people in Afghanistan.<ref>Awde and Sarwan, 2003</ref>
In Vietnam, Russian has been added in the elementary curriculum along with Chinese and Japanese and were named as "first foreign languages" for Vietnamese students to learn, on equal footing with English.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
North AmericaEdit
Template:See also The Russian language was first introduced in North America when Russian explorers voyaged into Alaska and claimed it for Russia during the 18th century. Although most Russian colonists left after the United States bought the land in 1867, a handful stayed and preserved the Russian language in this region to this day, although only a few elderly speakers of this unique dialect are left.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In Nikolaevsk, Alaska, Russian is more spoken than English. Sizable Russian-speaking communities also exist in North America, especially in large urban centers of the US and Canada, such as New York City, Philadelphia, Boston, Los Angeles, Nashville, San Francisco, Seattle, Spokane, Toronto, Calgary, Baltimore, Miami, Portland, Chicago, Denver, and Cleveland. In a number of locations they issue their own newspapers, and live in ethnic enclaves (especially the generation of immigrants who started arriving in the early 1960s). Only about 25% of them are ethnic Russians, however. Before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the overwhelming majority of Russophones in Brighton Beach, Brooklyn in New York City were Russian-speaking Jews. Afterward, the influx from the countries of the former Soviet Union changed the statistics somewhat, with ethnic Russians and Ukrainians immigrating along with some more Russian Jews and Central Asians. According to the United States Census, in 2007 Russian was the primary language spoken in the homes of over 850,000 individuals living in the United States.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
As an international languageEdit
Russian is one of the official languages (or has similar status and interpretation must be provided into Russian) of the following:
- United Nations
- International Atomic Energy Agency
- World Health Organization
- International Civil Aviation Organization
- UNESCO
- World Intellectual Property Organization
- International Telecommunication Union
- World Meteorological Organization
- Food and Agriculture Organization
- International Fund for Agricultural Development
- International Criminal Court
- International Olympic Committee
- Universal Postal Union
- World Bank
- Commonwealth of Independent States
- Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
- Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
- Eurasian Economic Community
- Collective Security Treaty Organization
- Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
- International Organization for Standardization
- International Mathematical Olympiad
The Russian language is also one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station – NASA astronauts who serve alongside Russian cosmonauts usually take Russian language courses. This practice goes back to the Apollo–Soyuz mission, which first flew in 1975.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In March 2013, Russian was found to be the second-most used language on websites after English. Russian was the language of 5.9% of all websites, slightly ahead of German and far behind English (54.7%). Russian was used not only on 89.8% of .ru sites, but also on 88.7% of sites with the former Soviet Union domain .su. Websites in former Soviet Union member states also used high levels of Russian: 79.0% in Ukraine, 86.9% in Belarus, 84.0% in Kazakhstan, 79.6% in Uzbekistan, 75.9% in Kyrgyzstan and 81.8% in Tajikistan. However, Russian was the sixth-most used language on the top 1,000 sites, behind English, Chinese, French, German, and Japanese.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
On 13 October 2023, the CIS Council of Heads of State signed the Treaty on the Establishment of the International Organisation for the Russian Language and adopted the Statement on Support and Promotion of the Russian Language as a Language of Interethnic Communication.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
DialectsEdit
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Despite leveling after 1900, especially in matters of vocabulary and phonetics, a number of dialects still exist in Russia. Some linguists divide the dialects of Russian into two primary regional groupings, "Northern" and "Southern", with Moscow lying on the zone of transition between the two. Others divide the language into three groupings, Northern, Central (or Middle), and Southern, with Moscow lying in the Central region.<ref>David Dalby. 1999–2000. The Linguasphere Register of the World's Languages and Speech Communities. Linguasphere Press. Pg. 442.</ref>Template:Sfn
The Northern Russian dialects and those spoken along the Volga River typically pronounce unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} clearly, a phenomenon called okanye ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).Template:Sfn Besides the absence of vowel reduction, some dialects have high or diphthongal {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in place of Template:Proto and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in stressed closed syllables (as in Ukrainian) instead of Standard Russian {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, respectively.Template:Sfn Another Northern dialectal morphological feature is a post-posed definite article -to, -ta, -te similar to that existing in Bulgarian and Macedonian.Template:Sfn
In the Southern Russian dialects, instances of unstressed {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} following palatalized consonants and preceding a stressed syllable are not reduced to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (as occurs in the Moscow dialect), being instead pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in such positions (e.g. Template:Wikt-lang is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, not {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) – this is called yakanye ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).Template:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Consonants include a fricative {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, a semivowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, whereas the Standard and Northern dialects have the consonants {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and final {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, respectively.Template:Sfn The morphology features a palatalized final {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in 3rd person forms of verbs (this is unpalatalized in the Standard and Northern dialects).Template:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Comparison with other Slavic languagesEdit
During the Proto-Slavic (Common Slavic) times all Slavs spoke one mutually intelligible language or group of dialects.<ref>Context and the Lexicon in the Development of Russian Aspect, By Neil Bermel, p 16</ref> There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian, and a moderate degree of it in all modern Slavic languages, at least at the conversational level.<ref>Sussex & Cubberley, p. 3.</ref><ref>Similar languages to Russian Template:Webarchive, EZ Glot</ref>
Derived languagesEdit
- Balachka, a Ukrainian dialect spoken in Krasnodar region, Don, Kuban, and Terek, brought by relocated Cossacks in 1793 and is based on the so-called "southwest Russian" dialect (Ukrainian dialect). During the Russification of the aforementioned regions in the 1920s to 1950s, it was replaced by the Russian language.
- Esperanto has some words of Russian and Slavic origin and some features of its grammar could be derived from Russian.<ref name="Kiselman">Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Fenya, a criminal argot of ancient origin, with Russian grammar, but with distinct vocabulary
- Lojban, Russian is one of its six source languages, weighed for the number of Russian speakers in 1985.<ref name="Lojban">Template:Cite book</ref>
- Medny Aleut language, an extinct mixed language that was spoken on Bering Island and is characterized by its Aleut nouns and Russian verbs
- Padonkaffsky jargon, a slang language developed by padonki of Runet
- Quelia, a macaronic language with Russian-derived basic structure and part of the lexicon (mainly nouns and verbs) borrowed from German
- Runglish, a Russian-English pidgin. This word is also used by English speakers to describe the way in which Russians attempt to speak English using Russian morphology or syntax.
- Russenorsk, an extinct pidgin language with mostly Russian vocabulary and mostly Norwegian grammar, used for communication between Russians and Norwegian traders in the Pomor trade in Finnmark and the Kola Peninsula
- Surzhyk, a range of mixed (macaronic) sociolects of Ukrainian and Russian languages used in certain regions of Ukraine and adjacent lands.
- Trasianka, a heavily russified variety of Belarusian used by a large portion of the rural population in Belarus
- Taimyr Pidgin Russian, spoken by the Nganasan on the Taimyr Peninsula
- Alaskan Russian, a dialect of Russian spoken in some parts of the US state of Alaska
AlphabetEdit
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Russian is written using a Cyrillic alphabet. The Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The following table gives their forms, along with IPA values for each letter's typical sound:
| lang}}а {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}б {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}в {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}г {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}д {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}е {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}ё {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}ж {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}з {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}и {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}й {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
| lang}}к {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}л {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}м {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}н {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}о {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}п {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}р {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}с {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}т {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}у {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}ф {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
| lang}}х {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}ц {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}ч {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}ш {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}щ {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}ъ {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}ы {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}ь {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}э {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}ю {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
lang}}я {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
Older letters of the Russian alphabet include Template:Angle bracket, which merged to Template:Angle bracket ({{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}); Template:Angle bracket and Template:Angle bracket, which both merged to Template:Angle bracket ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}); Template:Angle bracket, which merged to Template:Angle bracket ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}); Template:Angle bracket, which merged to Template:Angle bracket ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}); Template:Angle bracket, which merged to Template:Angle bracket ({{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}); and Template:Angle bracket and Template:Angle bracket, which later were graphically reshaped into Template:Angle bracket and merged phonetically to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. While these older letters have been abandoned at one time or another, they may be used in this and related articles. The yers Template:Angle bracket and Template:Angle bracket originally indicated the pronunciation of ultra-short or reduced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
TransliterationEdit
Because of many technical restrictions in computing and also because of the unavailability of Cyrillic keyboards abroad, Russian is often transliterated using the Latin alphabet. For example, Template:Wikt-lang ('frost') is transliterated moroz, and Template:Wikt-lang ('mouse'), mysh or myš'. Once commonly used by the majority of those living outside Russia, transliteration is being used less frequently by Russian-speaking typists in favor of the extension of Unicode character encoding, which fully incorporates the Russian alphabet. Free programs are available offering this Unicode extension, which allow users to type Russian characters, even on Western 'QWERTY' keyboards.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ComputingEdit
Template:Main article The Russian language was first introduced to computing after the M-1, and MESM models were produced in 1951.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
OrthographyEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
According to the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences, an optional acute accent ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) may, and sometimes should, be used to mark stress. For example, it is used to distinguish between otherwise identical words, especially when context does not make it obvious: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (zamók – "lock") – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (zámok – "castle"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (stóyashchy – "worthwhile") – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (stoyáshchy – "standing"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (chudnó – "this is odd") – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (chúdno – "this is marvellous"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (molodéts – "well done!") – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (mólodets – "fine young man"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (uznáyu – "I shall learn it") – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (uznayú – "I recognize it"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (otrezát – "to be cutting") – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (otrézat – "to have cut"); to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words, especially personal and family names, like {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (aféra, "scandal, affair"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (gúru, "guru"), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (García), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Olésha), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Fermi), and to show which is the stressed word in a sentence, for example {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Tý syel pechenye? – "Was it you who ate the cookie?") – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Ty syél pechenye? – "Did you eat the cookie?) – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Ty syel pechénye? "Was it the cookie you ate?"). Stress marks are mandatory in lexical dictionaries and books for children or Russian learners.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
PhonologyEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
The Russian syllable structure can be quite complex, with both initial and final consonant clusters of up to four consecutive sounds. Using a formula with V standing for the nucleus (vowel) and C for each consonant, the maximal structure can be described as follows:
(C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)
ConsonantsEdit
Russian is notable for its distinction based on palatalization of most of its consonants. The phoneme /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/ is generally considered to be always hard; however, loan words such as Цюрих and some other neologisms contain /{{#invoke:IPA|main}}/ through the word-building processes (e.g., фрицёнок ["фриц" plus diminutive "ёнок"], шпицята ["шпиц" plus diminutive "ята"]). Palatalization means that the center of the tongue is raised during and after the articulation of the consonant. In the case of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, the tongue is raised enough to produce slight frication (affricate sounds; cf. Belarusian ць, дзь, or Polish ć, dź). The sounds {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are dental, that is, pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth rather than against the alveolar ridge. According to some linguists, the "plain" consonants are velarized as in Irish, something which is most noticeable when it involves a labial before a hard vowel, such as мы, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, "we" , or бэ, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, "the letter Б".
VowelsEdit
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | Template:IPA link | (Template:IPA link) | Template:IPA link |
| Mid | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Open | Template:IPA link |
Russian has five or six vowels in stressed syllables, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and in some analyses {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, but in most cases these vowels have merged to only two to four vowels when unstressed: {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) after hard consonants and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} after soft ones. These vowels have several allophones, which are displayed on the diagram to the right.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Ordin, Mikhail. (2011). Palatalization and Intrinsic Prosodic Vowel Features in Russian. Language and speech. 54. 547-68. 10.1177/0023830911404962.</ref>
GrammarEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
Russian has preserved an Indo-European synthetic-inflectional structure, although considerable leveling has occurred. Russian grammar encompasses:
- a highly fusional morphology
- a syntax that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements:<ref name="rbthdialects">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- a polished vernacular foundation;Template:Clarify
- a Church Slavonic inheritance;
- a Western European style.Template:Clarify
The spoken language has been influenced by the literary one but continues to preserve characteristic forms. The dialects show various non-standard grammatical features.<ref name="rbthdialects"/>
In terms of actual grammar, there are three tenses in RussianTemplate:Spaced en dash past, present, and futureTemplate:Spaced en dash and each verb has two aspects (perfective and imperfective). Russian nouns each have a genderTemplate:Spaced en dash either feminine, masculine, or neuter, chiefly indicated by spelling at the end of the word. Words change depending on both their gender and function in the sentence. Russian has six cases: Nominative (for the grammatical subject), Accusative (for direct objects), Dative (for indirect objects), Genitive (to indicate possession or relation), Instrumental (to indicate 'with' or 'by means of'), and Prepositional (used after the locative prepositions в "in", на "on", о "about", при "in the presence of"). Verbs of motion in RussianTemplate:Spaced en dash such as 'go', 'walk', 'run', 'swim', and 'fly'Template:Spaced en dash use the imperfective or perfective form to indicate a single or return trip, and also use a multitude of prefixes to add shades of meaning to the verb. Such verbs also take on different forms to distinguish between concrete and abstract motion.<ref name="Nesset">Template:Cite journal</ref>
VocabularyEdit
The number of listed words or entries in some of the major dictionaries published during the past two centuries, are as follows:<ref>What types of dictionaries exist? Template:Webarchive from www.gramota.ru Template:In lang</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
| Work | Year | Words | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Academic dictionary, I Ed. | 1789–1794 | 43,257 | Russian and Church Slavonic with some Old Russian vocabulary. |
| Academic dictionary, II Ed | 1806–1822 | 51,388 | Russian and Church Slavonic with some Old Russian vocabulary. |
| Academic dictionary, III Ed. | 1847 | 114,749 | Russian and Church Slavonic with Old Russian vocabulary. |
| Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language (Dahl's) | 1880–1882 | 195,844 | 44,000 entries lexically grouped; attempt to catalogue the full vernacular language. Contains many dialectal, local, and obsolete words. |
| Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (Ushakov's) | 1934–1940 | 85,289 | Current language with some archaisms. |
| Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language (Ozhegov's) | 1950–1965 1991Template:Nbs(2ndTemplate:Nbsed.) |
120,480 | "Full" 17-volumed dictionary of the contemporary language. The second 20-volumed edition was begun in 1991, but not all volumes have been finished. |
| Lopatin's dictionary | 1999–2013 | ≈200,000 | Orthographic, current language, several editions |
| Great Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language | 1998–2009 | ≈130,000 | Current language, the dictionary has many subsequent editions from the first one of 1998. |
| Russian Wiktionary | 11 October 2021 | 442,533 | Number of entries in the category Русский язык (Russian language) |
History and literary languageEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Template:See also
No single periodization is universally accepted, but the history of the Russian language is sometimes divided into the following periods:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Matthews">Template:Cite book</ref>
- Old Russian or Old East Slavic (until the 14th or 15th century)
- Middle Russian (14th or 15th century until the 17th or 18th century)
- Modern Russian (17th century or 18th century to the present)
The history of the Russian language is also divided into Old Russian from the 11th to 17th centuries, followed by Modern Russian.<ref name="Matthews"/>
The political reforms of Peter the Great (Пётр Вели́кий, Pyótr Velíky) were accompanied by a reform of the alphabet, and achieved their goal of secularization and Westernization. Blocks of specialized vocabulary were adopted from the languages of Western Europe. By 1800, a significant portion of the gentry spoke French daily, and German sometimes. Many Russian novels of the 19thTemplate:Nbscentury, e.g. Leo Tolstoy's (Лев Толсто́й) War and Peace, contain entire paragraphs and even pages in French with no translation given, with an assumption that educated readers would not need one.<ref name="Jeffra">Template:Cite book</ref>
The modern literary language is usually considered to date from the time of Alexander Pushkin ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) in the first third of the 19thTemplate:Nbscentury. Pushkin revolutionized Russian literature by rejecting archaic grammar and vocabulary (so-called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} — "high style") in favor of grammar and vocabulary found in the spoken language of the time. Even modern readers of younger age may only experience slight difficulties understanding some words in Pushkin's texts, since relatively few words used by Pushkin have become archaic or changed meaning. In fact, many expressions used by Russian writers of the early 19thTemplate:Nbscentury, in particular Pushkin, Mikhail Lermontov ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), Nikolai Gogol ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), Aleksander Griboyedov ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), became proverbs or sayings which can be frequently found even in modern Russian colloquial speech.<ref name="Jeffra"/>
{{#invoke:Listen|main}}
| Russian text | Pronunciation | Transliteration | English Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| lang}} | main}} | Zímnij véčer | Winter evening |
| lang}} | main}} | Búrja mglóju nébo krójet, | The storm covers the sky with a haze |
| lang}} | main}} | Víhri snéžnyje krutjá, | As it swirls heaps of snow in the air. |
| lang}} | main}} | To, kak zveŕ, oná zavójet, | At times, it howls like a beast, |
| lang}} | main}} | To zapláčet, kak ditjá, | And then cries like a child; |
| lang}} | main}} | To po króvle obvetšáloj | At times, on top of the threadbare roof, |
| lang}} | main}} | Vdrug solómoj zašumít, | It suddenly rustles straw, |
| lang}} | main}} | To, kak pútnik zapozdályj | And then, like a late traveller, |
| lang}} | main}} | K nam v okóško zastučít. | It knocks upon our window. |
During the Soviet period, the policy toward the languages of the various other ethnic groups fluctuated in practice. Though each of the constituent republics had its own official language, the unifying role and superior status was reserved for Russian, although it was declared the official language only in 1990.<ref>"Закон СССР от 24 April 1990 О языках народов СССР" Template:Webarchive (The 1990 USSR Law about the Languages of the USSR) Template:In lang</ref> Following the break-up of the USSR in 1991, several of the newly independent states have encouraged their native languages, which has partly reversed the privileged status of Russian, though its role as the language of post-Soviet national discourse throughout the region has continued.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The Russian language in the world declined after 1991 due to the collapse of the Soviet Union and decrease in the number of Russians in the world and diminution of the total population in Russia (where Russian is an official language), however Template:Clarify has since been reversed.<ref name="demoscope.ru"/><ref name=autogenerated20130215-1/><ref name="Mof.gov.cy">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
| Source | Native speakers | Native rank | Total speakers | Total rank |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| G. Weber, "Top Languages", Language Monthly, 3: 12–18, 1997, ISSN 1369-9733 |
160,000,000 | 8 | 285,000,000 | 5 |
| World Almanac (1999) | 145,000,000 | 8 (2005) | 275,000,000 | 5 |
| SIL (2000 WCD) | 145,000,000 | 8 | 255,000,000 | 5–6 (tied with Arabic) |
| CIA World Factbook (2005) | 160,000,000 | 8 |
According to figures published in 2006 in the journal "Demoskop Weekly" research deputy director of Research Center for Sociological Research of the Ministry of Education and Science (Russia) Arefyev A. L.,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the Russian language is gradually losing its position in the world in general, and in Russia in particular.<ref name="autogenerated20130215-1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="demoscope"/> In 2012, A. L. Arefyev published a new study "Russian language at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries", in which he confirmed his conclusion about the trend of weakening of the Russian language after the Soviet Union's collapse in various regions of the world (findings published in 2013 in the journal "Demoskop Weekly").<ref name="demoscope.ru"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=autogenerated20130213-1>Русский язык на рубеже XX-XXI веков Template:Webarchive — М.: Центр социального прогнозирования и маркетинга, 2012. — 482 стр.</ref> In the countries of the former Soviet Union the Russian language was being replaced or used in conjunction with local languages.<ref name="demoscope.ru"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Currently, the number of speakers of Russian in the world depends on the number of Russians in the world and total population in Russia.<ref name="demoscope.ru"/><ref name=autogenerated20130215-1/><ref name="Mof.gov.cy"/>
| Year | worldwide population, billion |
population Russian Empire, Soviet Union and Russian Federation, million |
share in world population, % |
total number of speakers of Russian, million |
share in world population, % |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1900 | 1.650 | 138.0 | Template:Nbs 8.4 | 105 | 6.4 |
| 1914 | 1.782 | 182.2 | Template:Nbs 10.2 | 140 | 7.9 |
| 1940 | 2.342 | 205.0 | Template:Nbs 8.8 | 200 | 7.6 |
| 1980 | 4.434 | 265.0 | Template:Nbs 6.0 | 280 | 6.3 |
| 1990 | 5.263 | 286.0 | Template:Nbs 5.4 | 312 | 5.9 |
| 2004 | 6.400 | 146.0 | Template:Nbs 2.3 | 278 | 4.3 |
| 2010 | 6.820 | 142.7 | Template:Nbs 2.1 | 260 | 3.8 |
| 2020 | 7.794 | 147.3 | Template:Nbs 1.8 | 256 | 3.3 |
Sample textEdit
{{#invoke:Listen|main}}
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Russian:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web
}}</ref>
Все люди рождаются свободными и равными в своем достоинстве и правах. Они наделены разумом и совестью и должны поступать в отношении друг друга в духе братства.
The romanization of the text into Latin alphabet:
Vse lyudi rozhdayutsya svobodnymi i ravnymi v svoyem dostoinstve i pravakh. Oni nadeleny razumom i sovest'yu i dolzhny postupat' v otnoshenii drug druga v dukhe bratstva.
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
See alsoEdit
- List of English words of Russian origin
- List of Russian language topics
- List of countries and territories where Russian is an official language
- Computer Russification
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
CitationsEdit
SourcesEdit
Template:Col-begin Template:Col-2
- In English
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Iliev, Iv. The Russian Genitive of Negation and Its Japanese Counterpart. International Journal of Russian Stidies. 1, 2018 (In Print)
- Template:Cite book
- O'Brien, M.A., New English–Russian and Russian–English Dictionary (New Orthography), New York, The Language Library 1944, Dover Publications.
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- In Russian
- журнал «Демоскоп Weekly» No. 571 – 572 14 – 31 октября 2013. А. Арефьев. Тема номера: сжимающееся русскоязычие. Демографические изменения – не на пользу русскому языку Template:Webarchive
- Русский язык на рубеже XX-XXI веков Template:Webarchive — М.: Центр социального прогнозирования и маркетинга, 2012. — 482 стр. Аннотация книги в РУССКИЙ ЯЗЫК НА РУБЕЖЕ XX-XXI ВЕКОВ Template:Webarchive
- журнал «Демоскоп Weekly» No. 329 – 330 14 – 27 апреля 2008. К. Гаврилов. Е. Козиевская. Е. Яценко. Тема номера: русский язык на постсоветских просторах. Где есть потребность в изучении русского языка Template:Webarchive
- журнал «Демоскоп Weekly» No. 251 – 252 19 июня – 20 августа 2006. А. Арефьев. Тема номера: сколько людей говорят и будут говорить по-русски? Будет ли русский в числе мировых языков в будущем? Template:Webarchive
- Жуковская Л. П. (отв. ред.) Древнерусский литературный язык и его отношение к старославянскому. — М.: «Наука», 1987.
- Иванов В. В. Историческая грамматика русского языка. — М.: «Просвещение», 1990.
- Новиков Л. А. Современный русский язык: для высшей школы. — М.: Лань, 2003.
- Филин Ф. П. О словарном составе языка Великорусского народа. Template:Webarchive // Вопросы языкознания. — М., 1982, No. 5. — С. 18–28
Template:Refend Template:Col-end
Further readingEdit
External linksEdit
- Russian Enthusiast - Prominent Russian language resource for English speakers
- Национальный корпус русского языка National Corpus of the Russian Language Template:In lang
- Russian Language Institute Language regulator of the Russian language Template:In lang
Template:Russian language Template:Navboxes Template:Sister bar Template:Authority control