The Poggendorff illusion is a geometrical-optical illusion that involves the misperception of the position of one segment of a transverse line that has been interrupted by the contour of an intervening structure. It is named after Johann Christian Poggendorff, the editor of the journal, who discovered it in the figures Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner submitted when first reporting on what is now known as the Zöllner illusion, in 1860.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref>Although Zöllner was focused on a different illusion, the misalignment of the diagonal lines revealed a distinct visual phenomenon.<ref name=":0" /> The Poggendorff illusion has become a widely studied example of spatial misperception in vision science and psychology. It has been used to investigate theories of perceptual systems, neurological function, and cognitive development.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":5">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The magnitude of the illusion depends on the properties of the obscuring pattern and the nature of its borders.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Many detailed studies of the illusion, including "amputating" various components<ref name=":7">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Spehar B, Gillam B J, 1998, "Modal and amodal completion in the Poggendorff illusion" Perception 27 ECVP Abstract Supplement</ref> point to its principal cause: acute angles in the figure are seen by viewers as expanded<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> though the illusion diminishes or disappears when the transverse line is horizontal or vertical. Other factors, such as the angle of the line, the width of the occluder, and the overall orientation of the figure, also influence its strength.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":8">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":9">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Theoretical explanationsEdit
Multiple explanations have been proposed for the Poggendorff illusion, most attributing it to a combination of perceptual and cognitive factors rather than a single cause.
Angle misperceptionEdit
One of the most established accounts attributes the illusion to distortions in how the brain processes angles and spatial orientation. Richard H. Day and Ross G. Dickinson (1976) argued that the illusion results from a combination of perceptual biases, including the horizontal–vertical effect, the longitudinal–transverse effect, and misjudgment of acute and obtuse angles.<ref name=":02">Template:Cite journal</ref> Acute angles tend to be perceived as wider than they are, shifting the apparent continuation of the oblique line. The illusion persists even when the orientation of the lines remains constant, suggesting the distortion occurs in the space between them rather than in the lines themselves.<ref name=":02" />A weaker misalignment effect occurs even without the occluding parallels, reinforcing the role of angle-based distortion.<ref name=":7" />
Weintraub et al. (1980) subsequently found that misalignment increases with obtuse angle size and changes with the transversal’s orientation, further supporting the angle misperception and orientation bias explanation.<ref name=":1" />
Depth processing and scene inferenceEdit
Another influential view is depth processing theory, where the brain interprets two-dimensional figures as three-dimensional scenes. Gillam (1971) and later Spehar and Gillam (2002) proposed that the central rectangle is seen as a foreground surface, while the oblique lines appear as receding into depth, causing perceived misalignment.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":12">Template:Cite journal</ref> When visual cues like luminance are used to make the obliques appear in front of the rectangle, the illusion is reduced, supporting the depth misperception explanation.<ref name=":12" /> Gregory (1968) described such illusions as errors arising from the brain’s use of internal assumptions to solve perceptual problems.<ref name=":8" />
A related account, the natural scene geometry theory, proposes that the illusion reflects learned expectations from everyday visual experience.<ref name=":9" /> Howe et al. (2005) analysed thousands of real-world 3D scenes and found that interrupted lines in the everyday environment often appear misaligned when occluded. The brain generalises from this experience, “expecting” a misalignment even when none exists. These accounts suggest that the visual system applies depth-based heuristics, either from internal encoding or real-world visual experience.<ref name=":9" />
Neural mechanismsEdit
Houck and Mefferd (1973) suggested that the illusion may arise from how orientation-sensitive neurons in the visual cortex respond to edges and angles. When oblique lines and an occluder are viewed together, interactions between these neurons can disrupt the brain’s ability to link the segments correctly, causing perceived misalignment.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Recent neuroimaging research by Shen et al. (2016) shows that real and illusory contours engage different brain regions. Real lines activate ventral visual areas involved in detailed processing, while inferred lines engage dorsal regions linked to spatial construction.<ref name=":22">Template:Cite journal</ref> The Poggendorff illusion may result from a discrepancy between these systems, where the ventral stream encodes visible segments accurately but the dorsal stream reconstructs the hidden continuation incorrectly, causing misalignment.<ref name=":22" />
Secondary accountsEdit
Lucia Zanuttini (1976) proposed that the illusion results from amodal completion, which is the brain’s tendency to fill in missing parts of an object when obscured. She suggested that the occluded surface appears perceptually shrunken, making the reconstructed diagonal appear shorter and misaligned. Enlarging the occluder by about 30% restored perceived alignment, supporting the role of surface compression.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Pressey and Sweeney (1972) suggested an assimilation theory, where the brain averages competing line projections near the intersection, giving more weight to shorter segments. This shifts the diagonal's apparent direction and explains both classical and reversed versions of the illusion.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Although grounded in established perceptual theories, these models have received less empirical attention in Poggendorff research.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />
Development and individual differencesEdit
Studies show that the strength of the illusion varies by age and cognitive profile. Children may be more susceptible than adults, with Chouinard et al. (2021) finding a steady decline in illusion magnitude from ages 6 to 14, stabilising at around 21.6 years.<ref name=":5" /> This suggests that as visual and cognitive systems mature, individuals become better at correcting for misleading visual cues.<ref name=":5" />
Leibowitz and Gwozdecki (1967) observed that individuals with intellectual disabilities remain highly susceptible regardless of age, supporting the idea that the illusion is modulated by higher-level cognitive functions like reasoning and spatial inference.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Also, illusion strength has been linked to language and reasoning skills, but not to basic visual alignment skills, suggesting cognitive development is more influential than visual perception alone.<ref name=":5" /> Visual expertise and attention may also contribute, though further research is needed.<ref name=":5" />
Clinical applicationsEdit
The Poggendorff illusion has also been used in clinical studies. Higashiyama et al. (2023) found that patients with cerebellar stroke were less affected by the illusion than healthy individuals, especially when the stroke involved the right posteromedial cerebellum.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref> This suggests that the cerebellum may play a role in how the brain processes spatial relationships, and that visual illusions like the Poggendorff could potentially serve as diagnostic tools in neurological assessment.<ref name=":6" />
Related illusionsEdit
The Poggendorff illusion belongs to a broader class of geometrical-optical illusions highlighting how spatial context influences perception.<ref name=":10" />Related illusions include: