Cube (algebra)

File:CubeChart.svg

Template:Math for values of Template:Math.

In arithmetic and algebra, the cube of a number Template:Mvar is its third power, that is, the result of multiplying three instances of Template:Mvar together. The cube of a number Template:Mvar is denoted Template:Math, using a superscript 3,Template:Efn for example Template:Nowrap. The cube operation can also be defined for any other mathematical expression, for example Template:Math.

The cube is also the number multiplied by its square:

Template:Math.

The cube function is the function Template:Math (often denoted Template:Math) that maps a number to its cube. It is an odd function, as

Template:Math.

The volume of a geometric cube is the cube of its side length, giving rise to the name. The inverse operation that consists of finding a number whose cube is Template:Mvar is called extracting the cube root of Template:Mvar. It determines the side of the cube of a given volume. It is also Template:Mvar raised to the one-third power.

The graph of the cube function is known as the cubic parabola. Because the cube function is an odd function, this curve has a center of symmetry at the origin, but no axis of symmetry.

In integers

Template:See also A cube number, or a perfect cube, or sometimes just a cube, is a number which is the cube of an integer. The non-negative perfect cubes up to 60³ are (sequence A000578 in the OEIS):

03 =	0
13 =	1	113 =	1331	213 =	9261	313 =	29,791	413 =	68,921	513 =	132,651
23 =	8	123 =	1728	223 =	10,648	323 =	32,768	423 =	74,088	523 =	140,608
33 =	27	133 =	2197	233 =	12,167	333 =	35,937	433 =	79,507	533 =	148,877
43 =	64	143 =	2744	243 =	13,824	343 =	39,304	443 =	85,184	543 =	157,464
53 =	125	153 =	3375	253 =	15,625	353 =	42,875	453 =	91,125	553 =	166,375
63 =	216	163 =	4096	263 =	17,576	363 =	46,656	463 =	97,336	563 =	175,616
73 =	343	173 =	4913	273 =	19,683	373 =	50,653	473 =	103,823	573 =	185,193
83 =	512	183 =	5832	283 =	21,952	383 =	54,872	483 =	110,592	583 =	195,112
93 =	729	193 =	6859	293 =	24,389	393 =	59,319	493 =	117,649	593 =	205,379
103 =	1000	203 =	8000	303 =	27,000	403 =	64,000	503 =	125,000	603 =	216,000

Geometrically speaking, a positive integer Template:Mvar is a perfect cube if and only if one can arrange Template:Mvar solid unit cubes into a larger, solid cube. For example, 27 small cubes can be arranged into one larger one with the appearance of a Rubik's Cube, since Template:Nowrap.

The difference between the cubes of consecutive integers can be expressed as follows:

Template:Math.

or

Template:Math.

There is no minimum perfect cube, since the cube of a negative integer is negative. For example, Template:Nowrap.

Base ten

Unlike perfect squares, perfect cubes do not have a small number of possibilities for the last two digits. Except for cubes divisible by 5, where only 25, 75 and 00 can be the last two digits, any pair of digits with the last digit odd can occur as the last digits of a perfect cube. With even cubes, there is considerable restriction, for only 00, Template:Math2, Template:Math4, Template:Math6 and Template:Math8 can be the last two digits of a perfect cube (where Template:Math stands for any odd digit and Template:Math for any even digit). Some cube numbers are also square numbers; for example, 64 is a square number Template:Nowrap and a cube number Template:Nowrap. This happens if and only if the number is a perfect sixth power (in this case 2⁶).

The last digits of each 3rd power are:

0

1

8

7

4

5

6

3

2

9

It is, however, easy to show that most numbers are not perfect cubes because all perfect cubes must have digital root 1, 8 or 9. That is their values modulo 9 may be only 0, 1, and 8. Moreover, the digital root of any number's cube can be determined by the remainder the number gives when divided by 3:

• If the number x is divisible by 3, its cube has digital root 9; that is,

  <math>\text{if}\quad x \equiv 0 \pmod 3 \quad \text{then} \quad x^3\equiv 0 \pmod 9 \text{ (actually} \quad 0 \pmod {27}\text{)};</math>

• If it has a remainder of 1 when divided by 3, its cube has digital root 1; that is,

  <math>\text{if}\quad x \equiv 1 \pmod 3 \quad \text{then} \quad x^3\equiv 1 \pmod 9;</math>

• If it has a remainder of 2 when divided by 3, its cube has digital root 8; that is,

  <math>\text{if}\quad x \equiv 2 \pmod 3 \quad \text{then} \quad x^3\equiv 8 \pmod 9.</math>

Sums of two cubes

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Sums of three cubes

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It is conjectured that every integer (positive or negative) not congruent to Template:Math modulo Template:Math can be written as a sum of three (positive or negative) cubes with infinitely many ways.<ref>Template:Cite arXiv</ref> For example, <math> 6 = 2^3+(-1)^3+(-1)^3</math>. Integers congruent to Template:Math modulo Template:Math are excluded because they cannot be written as the sum of three cubes.

The smallest such integer for which such a sum is not known is 114. In September 2019, the previous smallest such integer with no known 3-cube sum, 42, was found to satisfy this equation:<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

<math> 42 = (-80538738812075974)^3 + 80435758145817515^3 + 12602123297335631^3.</math>

One solution to <math>x^3 + y^3 + z^3 = n</math> is given in the table below for Template:Math, and Template:Math not congruent to Template:Math or Template:Math modulo Template:Math. The selected solution is the one that is primitive (Template:Math), is not of the form <math>c^3+(-c)^3+n^3=n^3</math> or <math>(n+6nc^3)^3+(n-6nc^3)^3+(-6nc^2)^3=2n^3</math> (since they are infinite families of solutions), satisfies Template:Math, and has minimal values for Template:Math and Template:Math (tested in this order).<ref>Sequences A060465, A060466 and A060467 in OEIS</ref><ref>Threecubes</ref><ref>n=x^3+y^3+z^3</ref>

Only primitive solutions are selected since the non-primitive ones can be trivially deduced from solutions for a smaller value of Template:Mvar. For example, for Template:Math, the solution <math>2^3+2^3+2^3 =24</math> results from the solution <math>1^3+1^3+1^3=3</math> by multiplying everything by <math>8=2^3.</math> Therefore, this is another solution that is selected. Similarly, for Template:Math, the solution Template:Math is excluded, and this is the solution Template:Math that is selected.

Fermat's Last Theorem for cubes

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The equation Template:Math has no non-trivial (i.e. Template:Math) solutions in integers. In fact, it has none in Eisenstein integers.<ref>Hardy & Wright, Thm. 227</ref>

Both of these statements are also true for the equation<ref>Hardy & Wright, Thm. 232</ref> Template:Math.

Sum of first n cubes

The sum of the first Template:Mvar cubes is the Template:Mvarth triangle number squared:

<math>1^3+2^3+\dots+n^3 = (1+2+\dots+n)^2=\left(\frac{n(n+1)}{2}\right)^2.</math>

File:Nicomachus theorem 3D.svg

Visual proof that Template:Nowrap = Template:Nowrap.

Proofs. Template:Harvs gives a particularly simple derivation, by expanding each cube in the sum into a set of consecutive odd numbers. He begins by giving the identity

<math>n^3 = \underbrace{\left(n^2-n+1\right) + \left(n^2-n+1+2\right) + \left(n^2-n+1+4\right)+ \cdots + \left(n^2+n-1\right)}_{n \text{ consecutive odd numbers}}.</math>

That identity is related to triangular numbers <math>T_n</math> in the following way:

<math>n^3 =\sum _{k=T_{n-1}+1}^{T_{n}} (2 k-1),</math>

and thus the summands forming <math>n^3</math> start off just after those forming all previous values <math>1^3</math> up to <math>(n-1)^3</math>. Applying this property, along with another well-known identity:

<math>n^2 = \sum_{k=1}^n (2k-1),</math>

we obtain the following derivation:

<math>

\begin{align} \sum_{k=1}^n k^3 &= 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 + \cdots + n^3 \\ &= \underbrace{1}_{1^3} + \underbrace{3+5}_{2^3} + \underbrace{7 + 9 + 11}_{3^3} + \underbrace{13 + 15 + 17 + 19}_{4^3} + \cdots + \underbrace{\left(n^2-n+1\right) + \cdots + \left(n^2+n-1\right)}_{n^3} \\ &= \underbrace{\underbrace{\underbrace{\underbrace{1}_{1^2} + 3}_{2^2} + 5}_{3^2} + \cdots + \left(n^2 + n - 1\right)}_{\left( \frac{n^{2}+n}{2} \right)^{2}} \\ &= (1 + 2 + \cdots + n)^2 \\ &= \bigg(\sum_{k=1}^n k\bigg)^2. \end{align}</math>

File:Sum of cubes2.png

Visual demonstration that the square of a triangular number equals a sum of cubes.

In the more recent mathematical literature, Template:Harvtxt uses the rectangle-counting interpretation of these numbers to form a geometric proof of the identity (see also Template:Harvnb); he observes that it may also be proved easily (but uninformatively) by induction, and states that Template:Harvtxt provides "an interesting old Arabic proof". Template:Harvtxt provides a purely visual proof, Template:Harvtxt provide two additional proofs, and Template:Harvtxt gives seven geometric proofs.

For example, the sum of the first 5 cubes is the square of the 5th triangular number,

<math>1^3+2^3+3^3+4^3+5^3 = 15^2 </math>

A similar result can be given for the sum of the first Template:Mvar odd cubes,

<math>1^3+3^3+\dots+(2y-1)^3 = (xy)^2</math>

but Template:Mvar, Template:Mvar must satisfy the negative Pell equation Template:Math. For example, for Template:Math and Template:Math, then,

<math>1^3+3^3+\dots+9^3 = (7\cdot 5)^2 </math>

<math>1^3+3^3+\dots+57^3 = (41\cdot 29)^2</math>

and so on. Also, every even perfect number, except the lowest, is the sum of the first Template:Math odd cubes (p = 3, 5, 7, ...):

<math>28 = 2^2(2^3-1) = 1^3+3^3</math>

<math>496 = 2^4(2^5-1) = 1^3+3^3+5^3+7^3</math>

<math>8128 = 2^6(2^7-1) = 1^3+3^3+5^3+7^3+9^3+11^3+13^3+15^3</math>

Sum of cubes of numbers in arithmetic progression

File:Plato number.svg

One interpretation of Plato's number, Template:Nowrap

There are examples of cubes of numbers in arithmetic progression whose sum is a cube:

<math>3^3+4^3+5^3 = 6^3</math>

<math>11^3+12^3+13^3+14^3 = 20^3</math>

<math>31^3+33^3+35^3+37^3+39^3+41^3 = 66^3</math>

with the first one sometimes identified as the mysterious Plato's number. The formula Template:Mvar for finding the sum of Template:Mvar cubes of numbers in arithmetic progression with common difference Template:Mvar and initial cube Template:Math,

<math>F(d,a,n) = a^3+(a+d)^3+(a+2d)^3+\cdots+(a+dn-d)^3</math>

is given by

<math>F(d,a,n) = (n/4)(2a-d+dn)(2a^2-2ad+2adn-d^2n+d^2n^2)</math>

A parametric solution to

<math>F(d,a,n) = y^3</math>

is known for the special case of Template:Math, or consecutive cubes, as found by Pagliani in 1829.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Cubes as sums of successive odd integers

In the sequence of odd integers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, ..., the first one is a cube (Template:Nowrap); the sum of the next two is the next cube (Template:Nowrap); the sum of the next three is the next cube (Template:Nowrap); and so forth.

Waring's problem for cubes

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Every positive integer can be written as the sum of nine (or fewer) positive cubes. This upper limit of nine cubes cannot be reduced because, for example, 23 cannot be written as the sum of fewer than nine positive cubes:

23 = 2³ + 2³ + 1³ + 1³ + 1³ + 1³ + 1³ + 1³ + 1³.

In rational numbers

Every positive rational number is the sum of three positive rational cubes,<ref>Hardy & Wright, Thm. 234</ref> and there are rationals that are not the sum of two rational cubes.<ref>Hardy & Wright, Thm. 233</ref>

In real numbers, other fields, and rings

File:X cubed plot.svg

Template:Math plotted on a Cartesian plane

In real numbers, the cube function preserves the order: larger numbers have larger cubes. In other words, cubes (strictly) monotonically increase. Also, its codomain is the entire real line: the function Template:Math is a surjection (takes all possible values). Only three numbers are equal to their own cubes: Template:Num, Template:Num, and Template:Num. If Template:Math or Template:Math, then Template:Math. If Template:Math or Template:Math, then Template:Math. All aforementioned properties pertain also to any higher odd power (Template:Math, Template:Math, ...) of real numbers. Equalities and inequalities are also true in any ordered ring.

Volumes of similar Euclidean solids are related as cubes of their linear sizes.

In complex numbers, the cube of a purely imaginary number is also purely imaginary. For example, Template:Math.

The derivative of Template:Math equals Template:Math.

Cubes occasionally have the surjective property in other fields, such as in Template:Math for such prime Template:Mvar that Template:Math,<ref>The multiplicative group of Template:Math is cyclic of order Template:Math, and if it is not divisible by 3, then cubes define a group automorphism.</ref> but not necessarily: see the counterexample with rationals above. Also in Template:Math only three elements 0, ±1 are perfect cubes, of seven total. −1, 0, and 1 are perfect cubes anywhere and the only elements of a field equal to their own cubes: Template:Math.

History

Determination of the cubes of large numbers was very common in many ancient civilizations. Mesopotamian mathematicians created cuneiform tablets with tables for calculating cubes and cube roots by the Old Babylonian period (20th to 16th centuries BC).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="nen">Template:Cite book</ref> Cubic equations were known to the ancient Greek mathematician Diophantus.<ref>Van der Waerden, Geometry and Algebra of Ancient Civilizations, chapter 4, Zurich 1983 Template:ISBN</ref> Hero of Alexandria devised a method for calculating cube roots in the 1st century CE.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Methods for solving cubic equations and extracting cube roots appear in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, a Chinese mathematical text compiled around the 2nd century BCE and commented on by Liu Hui in the 3rd century CE.<ref name="oxf">Template:Cite book</ref>

See also

• Cabtaxi number
• Cubic equation
• Doubling the cube
• Eighth power
• Euler's sum of powers conjecture
• Fifth power
• Fourth power
• Kepler's laws of planetary motion#Third law
• Monkey saddle
• Perfect power
• Seventh power
• Sixth power
• Square
• Taxicab number

References

Sources

• Template:Cite journal
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• Template:Cite book
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