Template:Short description Template:Multiple issues Template:Use mdy dates Template:Infobox person Christopher Johnson McCandless (Template:IPAc-en; February 12, 1968<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> – Template:Circa August 1992), also known by his pseudonym "Alexander Supertramp",<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> was an American adventurer who sought an increasingly nomadic lifestyle as he grew up.
After graduating from Emory University in Georgia in 1990, McCandless traveled across North America and eventually hitchhiked to Alaska in April 1992. There, he entered the Alaskan bush with minimal supplies, hoping to live simply off the land. On the eastern bank of the Sushana River, McCandless found an abandoned bus, Fairbanks Bus 142, which he used as a makeshift shelter until his death. In September, his body, weighing only Template:Convert, was found inside the bus by a hunter. McCandless's cause of death was officially ruled to be starvation,<ref name=":3" /> although the exact circumstances relating to his death remain the subject of some debate.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Krakauer2013" /><ref name="medred">Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref name=":2" />
Early lifeEdit
Christopher Johnson McCandless was born in Inglewood, California, and spent his early childhood in El Segundo, California. He was the elder child of Wilhelmina Marie "Billie" McCandless (née Johnson) and Walter "Walt" McCandless, and had a younger sister named Carine, born in July 1971. McCandless also had six half-siblings from Walt's first marriage, who lived with their mother in California and later in Denver, Colorado. In 1976, the family relocated to Annandale, Virginia, where McCandless's father was hired as an antenna specialist for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). McCandless's mother worked as a secretary for Hughes Aircraft. The couple established a consulting business out of their home, specializing in Walt's area of expertise.<ref name="ABC News">'Into the Wild' Chris McCandless' Sister Says He Was Determined to Cut Ties with Parents. Eric Johnson, Gail Deutsch, Jasmine Brown, Alexa Valiente and Lauren Effron. ABC News. 9 November 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2022</ref>
Carine McCandless alleged in her memoir The Wild Truth that her parents inflicted verbal and physical abuse upon each other and their children, often fueled by her father's alcoholism. She cited their abusive childhood, as well as his reading of Jack London's The Call of the Wild, as the motivating factors in her brother's desire to "disappear" into the wilderness.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In a statement released to the media shortly before the memoir was released, Walt and Billie McCandless denied their daughter's accusations, stating that her book is "fictionalized writing [that] has absolutely nothing to do with our beloved son, Chris, his journey or his character. This whole unfortunate event in Chris's life 22 years ago is about Chris and his dreams."<ref name="ABC News"/>
In 1986, McCandless graduated from W.T. Woodson High School in Fairfax, Virginia.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> He excelled academically, although a number of teachers and fellow students observed that he "marched to the beat of a different drummer." McCandless also served as captain of the cross-country team, where he would urge teammates to treat running as a spiritual exercise in which they were "running against the forces of darkness ... all the evil in the world, all the hatred."<ref name="Krakauer">Template:Cite magazine</ref>
In the summer of 1986, McCandless travelled to Southern California and reconnected with relatives and friends. While he was there, McCandless learned that his father had lived for a time in a bigamous union with his second wife; he had also fathered a child with his first wife after the birth of his children by his second wife.<ref name="Krakauer 1997 166">Template:Cite book</ref>
McCandless graduated from Emory University in May 1990 with a bachelor's degree in the double majors of history and anthropology.<ref name="Krakauer" /> McCandless was an academic high achiever.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> After graduating, he donated his college savings of over $24,000 (approximately $Template:Inflation in Template:Inflation/year) to Oxfam and adopted a vagabond lifestyle, working when necessary as a restaurant food preparer and farm-hand.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> An avid outdoorsman, McCandless completed several lengthy wilderness hiking trips and paddled a canoe down a portion of the Colorado River before hitchhiking to Alaska in April 1992.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Personal lifeEdit
McCandless had a particular interest in classic literature. According to Krakauer, some of his favorite writers were Jack London, Mark Twain, Leo Tolstoy and H. G. Wells.<ref name="krakauer_p45">Template:Cite book</ref> He was also heavily influenced by 19th-century American writer and naturalist Henry David Thoreau, and was engrossed by his essay On the Duty of Civil Disobedience. McCandless highlighted a section on chastity in Thoreau's Walden, which has raised questions regarding his sexuality. There is no indication of McCandless having any romantic partners throughout his life, and he is believed to have remained celibate, although his sister Carine recalls how one night, as a teenager, McCandless drunkenly attempted to bring a girl up to his room, which awakened his mother Billie, who sent the girl home. While staying in Niland Slabs, a seventeen-year-old girl named Tracy pursued McCandless romantically; however, McCandless rejected her advances.<ref name="krakauer_p45" /> Wayne Westerburg recalls McCandless stating that he hoped to get married and have a family in his future.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
TravelsEdit
McCandless left Virginia in the summer of 1990, driving a Datsun west in an apparent cross-country trip to California. His car was in poor condition and suffered numerous breakdowns as he made his way out of the eastern United States. He also carried no car insurance on the vehicle and was driving with expired license plates. By the end of the summer, McCandless had reached the Lake Mead National Recreation Area, where a flash flood disabled his car. Fearful of fines or possibly even arrest due to lack of a valid license, registration, and insurance, McCandless removed the car's license plates, took what he could carry, and kept moving on foot. His car was later found, repaired, and put into service as an undercover vehicle for the local police department.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Traveling northwest, McCandless then hitchhiked into the Sierra Nevada mountains, where he broke into a closed cabin to steal food, supplies, and money. Throughout the winter of 1990 and in 1991, McCandless appears to have lived in hermit camps with other vagrants in the Sierra Nevada region. He was suspected of burglarizing other cabins when food and money ran low, but only one case was ever positively confirmed by authorities after his death.<ref name="medred_beatification">Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref>
Mexico and arrestEdit
In early 1991, McCandless left the Sierra Nevada and hitchhiked in a circular course south through California, into Arizona, and then north to South Dakota. Completely out of cash with no means to support himself, he obtained a job as a grain elevator operator in Carthage, South Dakota. He worked at this job for the remainder of 1991, until one day suddenly quitting and leaving his supervisor a postcard, which read:
Tramping is too easy with all this money. My days were more exciting when I was penniless and had to forage around for my next meal ... I've decided that I'm going to live this life for some time to come.
McCandless then headed to Colorado, where he used money from his job to buy kayak supplies as well as a handgun. He then navigated the Colorado River, without a permit, and was occasionally pursued by wildlife and park rangers who had heard of his exploits from other river travelers, several of whom had been concerned that McCandless had been seen white water rafting in dangerous areas of the river with no safety equipment. In all, sightings of McCandless were reported at Lake Havasu, Bill Williams River, the Colorado River Reservoir, Cibola National Wildlife Refuge, Imperial National Wildlife Refuge, and Yuma Proving Ground. The authorities attempted, but never succeeded, in locating McCandless, who was wanted due to his lack of proper river training as well as kayaking on the river without a valid boating license.<ref>National Park Service, "Papers and Working Files of NPS Employees" (February 2020)</ref>
McCandless eventually followed the Colorado River all the way to Mexico, where he crossed the international border through a spillway at the Morelos Dam. After encountering waterfalls, through which he could no longer navigate in a canoe, McCandless abandoned his river journey and spent a few days alone at the village of El Golfo de Santa Clara, in the state of Sonora. Finding Mexico intimidating, with no way to support himself, he attempted to re-enter the U.S. and was arrested for carrying a firearm at a border checkpoint. McCandless was briefly held in custody but released without charges after his gun was confiscated. Following this experience in Mexico, McCandless began hitchhiking north, eventually winding up back in South Dakota.<ref name="medred_beatification"/>
AlaskaEdit
In April 1992, McCandless hitchhiked from South Dakota to Fairbanks, Alaska. After his death, witnesses stated they had seen McCandless in Alaska first at Dot Lake, with several other sightings in Fairbanks. McCandless was stated to be traveling with a "big backpack" and would give a false name if asked his identity. He was described as very suspicious of people around him, unkempt, and smelling due to lack of hygiene. One witness described McCandless as "generally strange, weird, with a weird energy".<ref name="medred_beatification"/> McCandless was then last seen alive at the head of the Stampede Trail on April 28 by a local electrician named Jim Gallien. Gallien, who had given McCandless a ride from Fairbanks to the start of the rugged track just outside the small town of Healy, later said he had been seriously concerned about the safety of McCandless (who introduced himself as "Alex") after noticing his light pack, minimal equipment, meager rations, and obvious lack of experience. Gallien said he had deep doubts about "Alex's" ability to survive the harsh and unforgiving Alaskan bush.
Gallien tried repeatedly to persuade McCandless to delay the trip, at one point offering to detour to Anchorage and buy him suitable equipment and supplies. However, McCandless ignored Gallien's persistent warnings and refused his offers of assistance (though he did accept a pair of Xtratufs, two sandwiches, and a packet of corn chips from Gallien). Gallien dropped McCandless off, believing he would head back towards the highway within a few days as hunger set in.<ref name="Krakauer 1997">Template:Cite book</ref>
After hiking along the snow-covered Stampede Trail, McCandless came upon an abandoned bus (about Template:Convert west of Healy at Template:Coord) alongside an overgrown section of the trail near Denali National Park. McCandless, according to Krakauer, attempted to continue "heading west until [he] hit the Bering Sea." However, he was deterred by the thick Alaskan bush and returned to the bus, where he set up camp and lived off the land. He had Template:Convert of rice; a Remington Nylon 66 semi-automatic rifle with 400 rounds of .22LR hollowpoint ammunition; a number of books, including one on local plant life; some personal effects and a few items of camping equipment. Self-portrait photographs and journal entries indicate he foraged for edible plants and hunted game including porcupines, squirrels, and birds such as ptarmigans and Canada geese. On June 9, 1992, McCandless illegally stalked and shot a moose. However, the meat spoiled within days after he failed in his efforts to preserve it. McCandless would experience profound regret as a result of this experience, expressing in a journal entry "I now wish I had never shot the moose. One of the greatest tragedies of my life."
It had been speculated that McCandless was responsible for vandalizing several cabins in the area that were stocked with food, survival equipment, and emergency supplies, however was not considered a viable suspect by the National Park Service.<ref>Into the Wild, p. 197</ref>
McCandless's journal documents 113 days in the area. In July, after living in the bus for a little over two months, he decided to head back to civilization, but the trail was blocked by the impassable Teklanika River swollen with late-summer runoff from the Cantwell Glacier; the watercourse by that stage was considerably higher and swifter than when he had crossed in April.Template:Efn McCandless did not have a detailed topographical map of the region and was unaware of the existence of an abandoned, hand-operated cable car that crossed the river Template:Convert downstream from where he had previously crossed.<ref name="Krakauer" /> At this point, McCandless headed back to the bus and re-established his camp. He posted an S.O.S. note on the bus, stating: <templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
Attention Possible Visitors. S.O.S. I need your help. I am injured, near death, and too weak to hike out of here. I am all alone, this is no joke. In the name of God, please remain to save me. I am out collecting berries close by and shall return this evening. Thank you, Chris McCandless. August ?<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
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DeathEdit
McCandless's final written journal entry, noted as "Day 107", simply read, "BEAUTIFUL BLUE BERRIES."<ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref> Days 108 through 112 contained no words and were marked only with slashes, and on Day 113, there was no entry.<ref name="hewitt">Template:Cite magazine</ref> The exact date and time of his death are unknown. Near the time of his death, McCandless took a picture of himself waving while holding a written note, which read:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
I HAVE HAD A HAPPY LIFE AND THANK THE LORD. GOODBYE AND MAY GOD BLESS ALL!<ref>Into the Wild, page 216</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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On September 6, 1992, a hunter who was looking for shelter for the night came upon the converted bus where McCandless had been staying. Upon entering, he smelled what he thought was rotting food and discovered "a lump" in a sleeping bag in the back of the bus. The hunter radioed police, who arrived the following day. State troopers found McCandless's decomposing remains in the sleeping bag.<ref name="hewitt"/> This hunter, Gordon Samel of Alaska, was shot to death in 2014 by police after leading them on a high-speed chase.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Theories of starvationEdit
In his book Into the Wild (1996), Jon Krakauer proposes two factors that may have contributed to McCandless's death.
Protein poisoningEdit
Krakauer wrote McCandless could have died of "rabbit starvation", officially known as protein poisoning, from over-relying on lean meat for nutrition.<ref>Into the Wild, page 188</ref>
Swainsonine in Hedysarum alpinum seedsEdit
Krakauer also speculated that McCandless might have been poisoned by a toxic alkaloid called swainsonine, after eating sweet-vetch seeds (Hedysarum alpinum or Hedysarum mackenzii) containing the toxin, or possibly by a mold that can grow on them, when he put them into a plastic bag.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Swainsonine inhibits the metabolism of glycoproteins, which leads to starvation despite ample food consumption.<ref name=Krakauer2013/>
In an article in the September 2007 issue of Men's Journal, correspondent Matthew Power states that extensive laboratory testing showed there were no toxins or alkaloids present in the sweet-vetch seeds McCandless had been eating. Thomas Clausen, then-head of the chemistry and biochemistry department at University of Alaska Fairbanks, said, "I tore that plant apart. There were no toxins. No alkaloids. I'd eat it myself."<ref name="matthew_power">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}. Men's Journal, September 2007. Retrieved Jan 03, 2011</ref> Further, there are no accounts in modern medical literature of a person being poisoned by this species of plant.<ref name="Terra Incognita films">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Power argued that McCandless "couldn't catch enough food to survive, and simply starved to death".<ref name="matthew_power"/>
Lathyrism due to ODAP in Hedysarum alpinum seedsEdit
In 2013, a new hypothesis was proposed. Ronald Hamilton, a retired bookbinder at the Indiana University of Pennsylvania,<ref name="Krakauer2013">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> suggested a link between the symptoms described by McCandless and the poisoning of Jewish prisoners in the concentration camp at Vapniarca. He put forward the proposal that McCandless starved to death because he was suffering from paralysis in his legs induced by lathyrism, which prevented him from gathering food or hiking.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Lathyrism may be caused by oxalyldiaminopropionic acid (ODAP) poisoning from seeds of Hedysarum alpinum.
The ODAP, a toxic amino acid, had not been detected by Clausen's previous studies of the seeds because he had suspected and tested for a toxic alkaloid, rather than an amino acid, as no scientist had previously suspected that Hedysarum alpinum seeds contained this toxin. The protein would be relatively harmless to someone who was well-nourished, with access to a normal diet, but would be toxic to someone who was malnourished, physically stressed, and on an irregular and insufficient diet, as McCandless was.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In September 2013, Krakauer published an article in The New Yorker following up on Hamilton's claims.<ref name=Krakauer2013/> A sample of fresh Hedysarum alpinum seeds was sent to a laboratory for HPLC analysis. Results showed that the seeds contained 0.394% beta-ODAP by weight, a concentration well within the levels known to cause lathyrism in humans, although the interpretation of the results has been disputed by other chemists.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> The article notes that while occasional ingestion of foodstuffs containing ODAP is not hazardous for healthy individuals eating a balanced diet, "individuals suffering from malnutrition, stress, and acute hunger are especially sensitive to ODAP, and are thus highly susceptible to the incapacitating effects of lathyrism after ingesting the neurotoxin".<ref name=Krakauer2013/>
Edit
In March 2015, Krakauer co-authored a scientific analysis of the Hedysarum alpinum seeds McCandless ate. Instead of ODAP, the report found relatively high levels of L-canavanine (an antimetabolite toxic to mammals) in the H. alpinum seeds and concluded "it is highly likely that the consumption of H. alpinum seeds contributed to the death of Chris McCandless."<ref name=":2">Krakauer, J., et al. (2015). "Presence of l-canavanine in Hedysarum alpinum seeds and its potential role in the death of Chris McCandless." Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. {{#invoke:doi|main}}</ref>
LegacyEdit
The converted green and white bus where McCandless lived and died became a well-known destination for hikers. Known as "The Magic Bus", the 1946 International Harvester was abandoned by road workers in 1961 on the Stampede Trail. A plaque in McCandless's memory was affixed to the interior by his father, Walt McCandless.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> McCandless's life became the subject of numerous articles, books, films, and documentaries, which helped elevate his life to the status of modern myth.<ref name="outsideonline">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Cbignore He became a romantic figure to some, inspired by what they see as his free-spirited transcendentalism, but to others, he is a controversial, misguided person.<ref name="matthew_power"/><ref name="eva">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
"The Magic Bus" became a pilgrimage destination for trekkers who would camp at the vehicle. Some of these experienced their own difficulties, or even died attempting to cross the Teklanika River.<ref name="outsideonline" /><ref name=eva /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> According to one historian, the bus had become "a latter-day lieu de mémoire" — a "site of memory" that both "stored and secreted communal remembrance."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
On June 18, 2020, various government agencies coordinated with an Alaska Army National Guard training mission to remove the bus, deemed a public safety issue after at least 15 people had to be rescued and at least two people died while attempting to cross the Teklanika River to reach the bus.<ref name="alaska_public_media">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It was flown via CH-47 Chinook helicopter to Healy, then driven via flatbed truck to an undisclosed location.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="alaska_public_media" /> On September 24, 2020, the Museum of the North at the University of Alaska Fairbanks announced it was the permanent home of McCandless's "Magic Bus 142", which will be restored and exhibited outdoors.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It was exhibited indoors for two years, until October, 2023, but as of 2024 is being kept in storage until sufficient funds for restoration are raised.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
McCandless is the subject of Into the Wild, a 1996 nonfiction book by Jon Krakauer that was adapted into a film of the same name in 2007.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
AssessmentsEdit
McCandless has been a polarizing figure since his story came to widespread public attention with the publication of Krakauer's January 1993 Outside article.<ref name="matthew_power" /><ref name=eva /> While the author and many others have a sympathetic view of the young traveler,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> others, particularly Alaskans, have expressed negative views about McCandless and those who romanticize his fate.<ref name="peter_christian">George Mason University English Department. Text and Community website. Christian, Peter. Chris McCandless from a Park Ranger's Perspective. Retrieved August 26, 2007.</ref>
Sherry Simpson, writing in the Anchorage Press, described her trip to the bus with a friend, and their reaction upon reading the comments that tourists had left lauding McCandless as an insightful, Thoreau-like figure:
Among my friends and acquaintances, the story of Christopher McCandless makes great after-dinner conversation. Much of the time I agree with the "he had a death wish" camp because I don't know how else to reconcile what we know of his ordeal. Now and then I venture into the "what a dumbshit" territory, tempered by brief alliances with the "he was just another romantic boy on an all-American quest" partisans. Mostly I'm puzzled by the way he's emerged as a hero.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
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Krakauer defends McCandless, claiming that what critics point to as arrogance was merely McCandless's desire for "being the first to explore a blank spot on the map." He continues: "In 1992, however, there were no more blank spots on the map—not in Alaska, not anywhere. But Chris, with his idiosyncratic logic, came up with an elegant solution to this dilemma: He simply got rid of the map. In his own mind, if nowhere else, the terra would thereby remain incognita."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In popular cultureEdit
Krakauer's approximately 9,000-word article "Death of an Innocent" (January 1993) was published in Outside.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Chip Brown's full-length article on McCandless, "I Now Walk Into the Wild" (February 8, 1993), was published in The New Yorker.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Jon Krakauer's non-fiction book Into the Wild (1996) expands upon his 1993 Outside article and retraces McCandless's travels leading up to the hiker's eventual death.
McCandless's story was adapted by screenwriter Chip Johannessen into a 1998 episode of Chris Carter's television series Millennium, titled "Luminary."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
An eponymous 2007 film adaptation of Into the Wild, directed by Sean Penn with Emile Hirsch portraying McCandless, received a number of awards, including Best Picture from the American Film Institute.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Ron Lamothe's documentary The Call of the Wild (2007) also covers McCandless's life story.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The book Back to the Wild (2011) compiles photographs, postcards and journal entries by McCandless. A PBS documentary uncovering some additional information, with interviews, titled Return to the Wild: The Chris McCandless Story, first aired on the PBS network in November 2014.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In 2014, Carine McCandless, Chris' sister, published The Wild Truth, a memoir of her life.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It detailed their abusive home life, providing further context to Chris' actions.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ReferencesEdit
Template:Notelist Template:Reflist
External linksEdit
- [https://www.imdb.com/{{#if: 2950577
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- {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
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- ChristopherMcCandless.info Website on Christopher McCandless.
- Chrisspurpose.org Template:Mdash Christopher Johnson McCandless Memorial Foundation
- Dispatches from the Wild Template:Mdash Excerpts of McCandless's own articles published in the Emory Wheel student newspaper.
- The Wild Truth by Carine McCandless, Template:ISBN, detailing what growing-up in the McCandless household was like.
- The Call of the Wild, a 2007 documentary about McCandless made by Ron Lamothe.
- Vagabond, a 1985 French film that deals with a similar theme