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Adonis

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In Greek mythology, Adonis (Template:Langx; Template:Langx) was the mortal lover of the goddesses Aphrodite and Persephone. He was considered to be the ideal of male beauty in classical antiquity.

The myth goes that Adonis was gored by a wild boar during a hunting trip and died in Aphrodite's arms as she wept; his blood mingled with her tears and became the anemone flower. The Adonia festival commemorated his tragic death, celebrated by women every year in midsummer. During this festival, Greek women would plant "gardens of Adonis", small pots containing fast-growing plants, which they would set on top of their houses in the hot sun. The plants would sprout but soon wither and die. Then, the women would mourn the death of Adonis, tearing their clothes and beating their breasts in a public display of grief.

File:Cupid with Venus and Adonis, fresco in Pompeii.jpg
Antique fresco in Pompeii depicting Adonis, Cupid, and Venus

The Greeks considered Adonis's cult to be of Near Eastern origin. Adonis's name comes from a Canaanite word meaning "lord" and most modern scholars consider the story of Aphrodite and Adonis to be derived from a Levantine version of the earlier Mesopotamian myth of Inanna (Ishtar) and Dumuzid (Tammuz).

In late 19th and early 20th century scholarship of religion, Adonis was widely seen as a prime example of the archetypal dying-and-rising god. His name is often applied in modern times to handsome youths, of whom he is considered the archetype.

CultEdit

OriginEdit

File:Marriage of Inanna and Dumuzi.png
An ancient Sumerian depiction of the marriage of Inanna and DumuzidTemplate:Sfn

Template:Fertile Crescent myth (Levantine)Template:Middle Eastern deities

The worship of Aphrodite and Adonis is probably a Greek continuation of the ancient Sumerian worship of Inanna and Dumuzid.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Greek name {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) is derived from the Canaanite word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), meaning "lord".Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="Robert S. P 2009, p. 23">R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 23.</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

This word is related to Adonai (Template:Langx), one of the titles used to refer to the God of the Hebrew Bible and still used in Judaism to the present day.Template:Sfn The Syrian name for Adonis is Gauas.Template:Sfn

The cult of Inanna and Dumuzid may have been introduced to the Kingdom of Judah during the reign of King Manasseh.Template:Sfn Ezekiel 8 (Template:Bibleverse) mentions Adonis under his earlier East Semitic name TammuzTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and describes a group of women mourning Tammuz's death while sitting near the north gate of the Temple in Jerusalem.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The earliest known Greek reference to Adonis comes from a fragment of a poem by the poet Sappho of Lesbos (Template:Circa),Template:Sfn in which a chorus of young girls asks Aphrodite what they can do to mourn Adonis' death.Template:Sfn Aphrodite replies that they must beat their breasts and tear their tunics.Template:Sfn The cult of Adonis has also been described as corresponding to the cult of the Phoenician god Baal.Template:Sfn As Walter Burkert explains:

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Women sit by the gate weeping for Tammuz, or they offer incense to Baal on roof-tops and plant pleasant plants. These are the very features of the Adonis legend: which is celebrated on flat roof-tops on which sherds sown with quickly germinating green salading are placed, Adonis gardens ... the climax is loud lamentation for the dead god.Template:Sfn{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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The exact date when the worship of Adonis became integrated into Greek culture is still disputed. Walter Burkert questions whether Adonis had not from the very beginning come to Greece along with Aphrodite.Template:Sfn "In Greece," Burkert concludes, "the special function of the Adonis legend is as an opportunity for the unbridled expression of emotion in the strictly circumscribed life of women, in contrast to the rigid order of polis and family with the official women's festivals in honour of Demeter."Template:Sfn The significant influence of Near Eastern culture on early Greek religion in general, and on the cult of Aphrodite in particular,Template:Sfn is now widely recognised as dating to a period of orientalisation during the eighth century BC,Template:Sfn when archaic Greece was on the fringes of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.Template:Sfn

In Cyprus, the cult of Adonis gradually superseded that of Cinyras. W. Atallah suggests that the later Hellenistic myth of Adonis represents the conflation of two independent traditions.<ref>Atallah 1966.</ref>

Festival of AdoniaEdit

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File:Women Adonia Louvre CA1679.jpg
Fragment of an Attic red-figure wedding vase (Template:Circa 430–420 BC), showing women climbing ladders up to the roofs of their houses carrying "gardens of Adonis"

The worship of Adonis is associated with the festival of Adonia, which was celebrated by Greek women every year in midsummer.Template:Sfn<ref>W. Atallah, Adonis dans la littérature et l'art grecs, Paris, 1966.</ref> The festival, which was evidently already celebrated in Lesbos by Sappho's time in the seventh century BC, seems to have first become popular in Athens in the mid-fifth century BC.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At the start of the festival, the women would plant a "garden of Adonis", a small garden planted inside a small basket or a shallow piece of broken pottery containing a variety of quick-growing plants, such as lettuce and fennel, or even quick-sprouting grains, such as wheat and barley.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The women would then climb ladders to the roofs of their houses, where they would place the gardens out under the heat of the summer sun.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The plants would sprout in the sunlight, but wither quickly in the heat.Template:Sfn While they waited for the plants to first sprout and then wither, the women would burn incense to Adonis.Template:Sfn Once the plants had withered, the women would mourn and lament loudly over the death of Adonis, tearing their clothes and beating their breasts in a public display of grief.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The women would lay a statuette of Adonis out on a bier and then carry it to the sea along with all the withered plants as a funeral procession.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The festival concluded with the women throwing the effigy of Adonis and the withered plants out to sea.Template:Sfn

MythologyEdit

BirthEdit

While Sappho does not describe the myth of Adonis, later sources flesh out the details.Template:Sfn According to the retelling of the story found in the poem Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BC – AD 17/18), Adonis was the son of Myrrha, who was cursed by Aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father, King Cinyras of Cyprus,<ref name="OvidMyrrhaAdonis">Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.298–355</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn after Myrrha's mother bragged that her daughter was more beautiful than the goddess.<ref name="OvidMyrrhaAdonis"/>Template:Sfn It was to her nurse that, with much reluctance, Myrrha revealed her shameful passion.<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.356-430</ref> Sometime later, during a festival in honour of Demeter, the nurse found Cinyras half-passed out with wine and Myrrha's mother nowhere near him. Thus, she spoke to him of a girl who truly loved him and desired to sleep with him, giving her a fictitious name and simply describing her as Myrrha's age. Cinyras agreed, and the nurse was quick to bring Myrrha to him. Myrrha left her father's room impregnated.<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.431-502</ref> After several couplings, Cinyras discovered his lover's identity and drew his sword to kill her; driven out after becoming pregnant, Myrrha was changed into a myrrh tree but still gave birth to Adonis.<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.503</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to classicist William F. Hansen, the story of how Adonis was conceived falls in line with the conventional ideas about sex and gender that were prevalent in the classical world, since the Greeks and Romans believed that women, such as Adonis's mother Myrrha, were less capable of controlling their primal wants and passions than men.Template:Sfn

Aphrodite and PersephoneEdit

File:Aphrodite Adonis Louvre MNB2109.jpg
Attic red-figure aryballos painting by Aison (Template:Circa 410 BC) showing Adonis consorting with Aphrodite

Aphrodite found the baby,Template:Sfn and took him to the underworld to be fostered by Persephone.Template:Sfn She returned for him once he was grownTemplate:Sfn and discovered him to be strikingly handsome.Template:Sfn However, Persephone too found Adonis to be exceedingly handsome<ref>Grimal, s.v. Adonis; Bell, s.v. Aphrodite; Tripp s.v Adonis</ref> and wanted to keep AdonisTemplate:Sfn for she too fell in love with him;<ref>Greek anthology Agathias Scholasticus 5.289</ref><ref>Alciphron, Letters to Courtesans 4.14.1</ref><ref>Clement of Alexandria, Exhortations 2.29</ref> Zeus settled the dispute by decreeing that Adonis would spend one third of the year with Aphrodite, one third with Persephone, and one third with whomever he chose.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3.14.4</ref>Template:Sfn Adonis chose Aphrodite, and they remained constantly together.Template:Sfn Another version states that both goddesses got to keep him for half the year each at the suggestion of the Muse Calliope.<ref>Hyginus, Astronomica 2.7.4</ref> Thus was Adonis' life divided between Aphrodite and Persephone, one goddess who loved him beneath the earth, the other above it.<ref>Aelian, On Animals 9.36</ref> In his comical work Dialogues of the Gods, the satirical author Lucian features Aphrodite in several dialogues, in one of which she complains to the moon goddess Selene that Eros made Persephone fall in love with Adonis and now she has to share him with her.<ref>Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods Aphrodite and the Moon</ref>

DeathEdit

Then, one day, while Adonis was out hunting, he was wounded by a wild boar and bled to death in Aphrodite's arms.Template:Sfn In different versions of the story, the boar was either sent by Ares, who was jealous that Aphrodite was spending so much time with Adonis,Template:Sfn by Artemis, who wanted revenge against Aphrodite for having killed her devoted follower Hippolytus,Template:Sfn or by Apollo, to punish Aphrodite for blinding his son Erymanthus.<ref>According to Nonnus, Dionysiaca 42.1f. Servius on Virgil's Eclogues x.18; Orphic Hymn lv.10; Ptolemy Hephaestionos, i.306u, all noted by Graves. Atallah (1966) fails to find any cultic or cultural connection with the boar, which he sees simply as a heroic myth-element.</ref> The story also provides an etiology for Aphrodite's associations with certain flowers.Template:Sfn Reportedly, as she mourned Adonis's death, she caused anemones to grow wherever his blood fell,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and declared a festival on the anniversary of his death.Template:Sfn In one late account, his blood transformed into roses instead.<ref name="10.18">Servius Commentary on Virgil's Eclogues 10.18</ref>

In a very different version from the standard, surviving in the works of fifth century AD grammarian Servius and perhaps originating from the island of Cyprus, Adonis was made to fall in love with a mortal girl named Erinoma by Aphrodite herself at the command of Hera. Erinoma, a virgin girl favoured by Artemis and Athena, rejected his advances, so Adonis crept up stealthily in her bedroom and raped her. Adonis then fled and went into a cave to hide from Zeus, who also loved Erinoma and would surely avenge the violence done against her. Hermes, however, lured him with a trick, as Ares wounded him mortally in the form of a boar. Adonis died, but was eventually restored to life after Aphrodite begged Zeus. Erinoma bore him a son named Taleus.<ref name="10.18"/>Template:Sfn

Other lovesEdit

Adonis was also said to have been loved by other gods such as Apollo, Heracles and Dionysus. He was described as androgynous, for he acted like a man in his affections for Aphrodite but as a woman for Apollo.<ref>Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 5 (summary from Photius, Myriobiblon 190).</ref> "Androgynous" here means that Adonis took on a receptive role during sex with Apollo, which was interpreted in classical Greece to be the feminine position.

Heracles' love of Adonis is mentioned in passing by Ptolemy Hephaestion. The text states that due to his love of Adonis, Aphrodite taught Nessos the centaur the trap to ensnare him.<ref>Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 2 (summary from Photius, Myriobiblon 190).</ref>

Another tradition states that Dionysus, the Greek god of wine and madness, carried off Adonis.<ref>Phanocles ap.</ref><ref>Plut. Sumpos. iv. 5.</ref>

Other versionsEdit

File:Nahr Ibrahim, river in Lebanon 2011 - P1060155 r1.jpg
The Adonis River (now known as the Abraham River) in Lebanon was said to run red with blood each year during the festival of Adonis.Template:Sfn

In Idyll 15 by the early third-century BC Greek bucolic poet Theocritus, Adonis is described as still an adolescent with down on his cheeks at the time of his love affair with Aphrodite, in contrast to Ovid's Metamorphoses, in which he is portrayed as a fully mature man.Template:Sfn Pseudo-Apollodorus (Bibliotheke, 3.182) describes Adonis as the son of Cinyras, of Paphos on Cyprus, and Metharme. According to Pseudo-Apollodorus's Bibliotheke, Hesiod, in an unknown work that does not survive, made of him the son of Phoenix and the otherwise unidentified Alphesiboea.<ref>Ps.-Apollodorus, iii.14.4.1.</ref>

In one version of the story, Aphrodite injured herself on a thorn from a rose bushTemplate:Sfn and the rose, which had previously been white, was stained red by her blood.Template:Sfn In another version, an anemone flower grew on the spot where Adonis died, and a red rose where Aphrodite's tears fell.<ref>Roman, L., & Roman, M. (2010). Template:Google books</ref> The third century BC poet Euphorion of Chalcis remarked in his Hyacinth that "Only Cocytus washed the wounds of Adonis".<ref>Remarked upon in passing by Photius, Biblioteca 190 (on-line translation).</ref> According to Lucian's De Dea Syria,Template:Sfn each year during the festival of Adonis, the Adonis River in Lebanon (now known as the Abraham River) ran red with blood.Template:Sfn

In post-classical literature cultureEdit

The medieval French poet Jean de Meun retells the story of Adonis in his additions to the Roman de la Rose, written around 1275.Template:Sfn De Muen moralises the story, using it as an example of how men should heed the warnings of the women they love.Template:Sfn In Pierre de Ronsard's poem "Adonis" (1563), Venus laments that Adonis did not heed her warning, but ultimately blames herself for his death, declaring, "In need my counsel failed you."Template:Sfn In the same poem, however, Venus quickly finds another shepherd as her lover, representing the widespread medieval belief in the fickleness and mutability of women.Template:Sfn

The story of Venus and Adonis from Ovid's Metamorphoses was tremendously influential during the Elizabethan era.Template:Sfn In Edmund Spenser's epic poem The Faerie Queene (1590), tapestries depicting the story of Adonis decorate the walls of Castle Joyous.Template:Sfn Later in the poem, Venus takes the character Amoretta to raise her in the "Garden of Adonis".Template:Sfn Ovid's portrayal of Venus's desperate love for Adonis became the inspiration for many literary portrayals in Elizabethan literature of both male and female courtship.Template:Sfn

William Shakespeare's erotic narrative poem Venus and Adonis (1593), a retelling of the courtship of Aphrodite and Adonis from Ovid's Metamorphoses,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn was the most popular of all his works published within his own lifetime.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Six editions of it were published before Shakespeare's death (more than any of his other works)Template:Sfn and it enjoyed particularly strong popularity among young adults.Template:Sfn In 1605, Richard Barnfield lauded it, declaring that the poem had placed Shakespeare's name "in fames immortall Booke".Template:Sfn Despite this, the poem has received a mixed reception from modern critics.Template:Sfn Samuel Taylor Coleridge defended it, but Samuel Butler complained that it bored him, and C. S. Lewis described an attempted reading of it as "suffocating".Template:Sfn

The story of Adonis was the inspiration for the Italian poet Giambattista Marino to write his mythological epic L'Adone (1623), which outsold Shakespeare's First Folio.Template:Sfn Shakespeare's homoerotic descriptions of Adonis's masculine and Venus's beauty inspired the French novelist and playwright Rachilde (Marguerite Vallette-Eymery) to write her erotic novel Monsieur Vénus (1884), about a noblewoman named Raoule de Vénérande who sexually pursues a young, effeminate man named Jacques who works in a flower shop.Template:Sfn Jacques is ultimately shot and killed in a duel, thus following the model of Adonis's tragic death.Template:Sfn

As a dying and rising godEdit

File:JamesGeorgeFrazer.jpg
Photograph of Sir James George Frazer, the anthropologist who is most directly responsible for promoting the concept of a "dying and rising god" archetypeTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The late nineteenth-century Scottish anthropologist Sir James George Frazer wrote extensively about Adonis in his monumental study of comparative religion, The Golden Bough (the first edition of which was published in 1890)Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn as well as in later works.Template:Sfn Frazer claimed that Adonis was just one example of the archetype of a "dying-and-rising god" found throughout all cultures.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn In the mid-twentieth century, some scholars began to criticise the designation of "dying-and-rising god", in some cases arguing that deities like Adonis, previously referred to as "dying and rising", would be better termed separately as "dying gods" and "disappearing gods",Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn asserting that gods who "died" did not return, and those who returned never "really" died.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Biblical scholars Eddy and Boyd (2007) applied this rationale to Adonis based on the fact that his portion of the year spent in the Underworld with Persephone is not really a death and resurrection, but merely an instance of a living person staying in the Underworld.Template:Sfn They further argued that Adonis is not explicitly described as rising from the dead in any extant Classical Greek writings,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn though the fact that such a belief existed is attested by authors in Late Antiquity.Template:Sfn For example, Origen discusses Adonis, whom he associates with Tammuz, in his Selecta in Ezechielem ( "Comments on Ezekiel"), noting that "they say that for a long time certain rites of initiation are conducted: first, that they weep for him, since he has died; second, that they rejoice for him because he has risen from the dead (apo nekrôn anastanti)" (cf. J.-P. Migne, Patrologiae Cursus Completus: Series Graeca, 13:800).

Some other scholars have continued to cite Adonis/Tammuz as an example of a dying and rising god, suggesting that the descent into and return from the underworld is a functional analogue for death even if no physical cause of death is depicted.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

See alsoEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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BibliographyEdit

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External linksEdit

Template:Metamorphoses in Greco-Roman mythologyTemplate:Middle Eastern mythologyTemplate:Authority control

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