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Plantar fasciitis or plantar heel pain is a disorder of the plantar fascia, which is the connective tissue that supports the arch of the foot.<ref name="Bee_2014"/> It results in pain in the heel and bottom of the foot that is usually most severe with the first steps of the day or following a period of rest.<ref name="Bee_2014"/><ref name="Goff_2011"/> Pain is also frequently brought on by bending the foot and toes up towards the shin.<ref name="Rosenbaum_2014"/><ref name="Goff_2011">Template:Cite journal</ref> The pain typically comes on gradually, and it affects both feet in about one-third of cases.<ref name="Bee_2014"/><ref name="Rosenbaum_2014"/>
The cause of plantar fasciitis is not entirely clear.<ref name="Bee_2014"/> Risk factors include overuse, such as from long periods of standing, an increase in exercise, and obesity.<ref name="Bee_2014"/><ref name="Goff_2011"/> It is also associated with inward rolling of the foot, a tight Achilles tendon, and a sedentary lifestyle.<ref name="Bee_2014"/><ref name="Goff_2011"/> It is unclear if heel spurs have a role in causing plantar fasciitis even though they are commonly present in people who have the condition.<ref name="Bee_2014"/> Plantar fasciitis is a disorder of the insertion site of the ligament on the bone characterized by micro tears, breakdown of collagen, and scarring.<ref name="Bee_2014"/> Since inflammation plays either a lesser or no role, a review proposed it be renamed plantar fasciosis.<ref name="Bee_2014">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Lareau_2014">Template:Cite journal</ref> The presentation of the symptoms is generally the basis for diagnosis; with ultrasound sometimes being useful if there is uncertainty.<ref name="Bee_2014"/> Other conditions with similar symptoms include osteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, heel pad syndrome, and reactive arthritis.<ref name="Cutts_2012"/><ref name="Tu_2011">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Most cases of plantar fasciitis resolve with time and conservative methods of treatment.<ref name="Goff_2011"/><ref name="Tahririan_2012">Template:Cite journal</ref> For the first few weeks, those affected are usually advised to rest, change their activities, take pain medications, and stretch.<ref name="Goff_2011"/> If this is not sufficient, physiotherapy, orthotics, splinting, or steroid injections may be options.<ref name="Goff_2011"/> If these measures are not effective, additional measures may include extracorporeal shockwave therapy or surgery.<ref name="Goff_2011"/>
Between 4% and 7% of the general population has heel pain at any given time: about 80% of these are due to plantar fasciitis.<ref name="Bee_2014"/><ref name="Cutts_2012">Template:Cite journal</ref> Approximately 10% of people have the disorder at some point during their life.<ref name="Zhiyun_2013">Template:Cite journal</ref> It becomes more common with age.<ref name="Bee_2014"/> It is unclear if one sex is more affected than the other.<ref name="Bee_2014"/>
Signs and symptomsEdit
When plantar fasciitis occurs, the pain is typically sharp<ref name="Jeswani_2009">Template:Cite journal</ref> and usually unilateral (70% of cases).<ref name="Tahririan_2012"/> Bearing weight on the heel after long periods of rest worsens heel pain in affected individuals.<ref name="Molloy_2012"/> Individuals with plantar fasciitis often report their symptoms are most intense during their first steps after getting out of bed or after prolonged periods of sitting.<ref name="Goff_2011"/> Symptoms typically improve with continued walking.<ref name="Goff_2011"/><ref name="Tu_2011"/><ref name="Jeswani_2009"/> Rare, but reported, symptoms include numbness, tingling, swelling, and radiating pain.<ref name="Monto_2013"/> Typically there are no fevers or night sweats.<ref name="Rosenbaum_2014">Template:Cite journal</ref>
If the plantar fascia is overused in the setting of plantar fasciitis, the plantar fascia can rupture. Typical signs and symptoms of plantar fascia rupture include a clicking or snapping sound, significant local swelling, and acute pain in the bottom of the foot.<ref name="Jeswani_2009"/>
Risk factorsEdit
Identified risk factors for plantar fasciitis include excessive running, standing on hard surfaces for prolonged periods, high arches of the feet, the presence of a leg length inequality, and flat feet. The tendency of flat feet to excessively roll inward during walking or running makes them more susceptible to plantar fasciitis.<ref name="Goff_2011"/><ref name="Molloy_2012"/><ref name="Orchard_2012"/> Obesity is seen in 70% of individuals who present with plantar fasciitis and is an independent risk factor.<ref name="Rosenbaum_2014"/>
Plantar fasciitis is commonly a result of some biomechanical imbalance that causes an increased amount of tension placed along the plantar fascia.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Achilles tendon tightness and inappropriate footwear have also been identified as significant risk factors.<ref name="Yin_2014"/><ref name="Freakonomics">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
PathophysiologyEdit
The cause of plantar fasciitis is poorly understood and appears to have several contributing factors.<ref name="Yin_2014"/> The plantar fascia is a thick fibrous band of connective tissue that originates from the medial tubercle and anterior aspect of the heel bone. From there, the fascia extends along the sole of the foot before inserting at the base of the toes and supports the arch of the foot.<ref name="Rosenbaum_2014"/><ref name="Molloy_2012">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Orchard_2012">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Plantar fasciitis is a non-inflammatory condition of the plantar fascia. Within the last decade, studies have observed microscopic anatomical changes indicating that plantar fasciitis is due to a non-inflammatory structural breakdown of the plantar fascia rather than an inflammatory process.<ref name="Tahririan_2012"/><ref name="Yin_2014"/>
Many in the academic community have stated the condition should be renamed plantar fasciosis in light of these newer findings.<ref name="Tu_2011"/> Repetitive microtrauma (small tears) appears to cause a structural breakdown of the plantar fascia.<ref name="Monto_2013"/><ref name="Orchard_2012"/> Microscopic examination of the plantar fascia often shows myxomatous degeneration, connective tissue calcium deposits, and disorganized collagen fibers.<ref name="Lareau_2014"/>
Disruptions in the plantar fascia's normal mechanical movement during standing and walking (known as the Windlass mechanism) place excess strain on the calcaneal tuberosity and seem to contribute to the development of plantar fasciitis.<ref name="Yin_2014"/> Other studies have also suggested that plantar fasciitis is not due to the inflamed plantar fascia but maybe a tendon injury involving the flexor digitorum brevis muscle located immediately deep to the plantar fascia.<ref name="Orchard_2012"/>
DiagnosisEdit
Plantar fasciitis is usually diagnosed by a health care provider after consideration of a person's presenting history, risk factors, and clinical examination.<ref name="Goff_2011"/><ref name="Buchbinder_2014">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Palpation along the inner aspect of the heel bone on the sole may elicit tenderness during the physical examination.<ref name="Goff_2011"/><ref name="Molloy_2012"/> The foot may have limited dorsiflexion due to excessive tightness of the calf muscles or the Achilles tendon.<ref name="Tahririan_2012"/> Dorsiflexion of the foot may elicit the pain due to stretching of the plantar fascia with this motion.<ref name="Goff_2011"/><ref name="Monto_2013"/> Diagnostic imaging studies are not usually needed to diagnose plantar fasciitis.<ref name="Tahririan_2012"/> Occasionally, a physician may decide imaging studies (such as X-rays, diagnostic ultrasound, or MRI) are warranted to rule out serious causes of foot pain.
Other diagnoses that are typically considered include fractures, tumors, or systemic disease if plantar fasciitis pain fails to respond appropriately to conservative medical treatments.<ref name="Goff_2011"/><ref name="Molloy_2012"/> Bilateral heel pain or heel pain in the context of a systemic illness may indicate a need for a more in-depth diagnostic investigation. Under these circumstances, diagnostic tests such as a CBC or serological markers of inflammation, infection, or autoimmune disease such as C-reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, anti-nuclear antibodies, rheumatoid factor, HLA-B27, uric acid, or Lyme disease antibodies may also be obtained.<ref name="Cutts_2012"/> Neurological deficits may prompt an investigation with electromyography to check for damage to the nerves or muscles.<ref name="Monto_2013"/>
An incidental finding associated with this condition is a heel spur, a small bony calcification on the calcaneus (heel bone), which can be found in up to 50% of those with plantar fasciitis.<ref name="Tu_2011"/> In such cases, it is the underlying plantar fasciitis that produces the heel pain, and not the spur itself.<ref name="Orchard_2012"/> The condition is responsible for the creation of the spur though the clinical significance of heel spurs in plantar fasciitis remains unclear.<ref name="Monto_2013"/>
ImagingEdit
Medical imaging is not routinely needed. It is expensive and does not typically change how plantar fasciitis is managed.<ref name="Yin_2014">Template:Cite journal</ref> When the diagnosis is not clinically apparent, lateral view X-rays of the ankle are the recommended imaging modality to assess for other causes of heel pain, such as stress fractures or bone spur development.<ref name="Tahririan_2012"/>
The plantar fascia has three fascicles-the central fascicle being the thickest at 4 mm, the lateral fascicle at 2 mm, and the medial less than a millimeter thick.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In theory, plantar fasciitis becomes more likely as the plantar fascia's thickness at the calcaneal insertion increases. A thickness of more than 4.5 mm ultrasound and 4 mm on MRI are useful for diagnosis.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other imaging findings, such as thickening of the plantar aponeurosis, are nonspecific and have limited usefulness in diagnosing plantar fasciitis.<ref name="Orchard_2012"/>
Three-phase bone scan is a sensitive modality to detect active plantar fasciitis. Furthermore, a 3-phase bone scan can be used to monitor response to therapy, as demonstrated by decreased uptake after corticosteroid injections.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Differential diagnosisEdit
The differential diagnosis for heel pain is extensive and includes pathological entities including, but not limited to, the following: calcaneal stress fracture, septic arthritis, calcaneal bursitis, osteoarthritis, spinal stenosis involving the nerve roots of lumbar spinal nerve 5 (L5) or sacral spinal nerve 1 (S1), calcaneal fat pad syndrome, metastasized cancers from elsewhere in the body, hypothyroidism, gout, seronegative spondyloparthopathies such as reactive arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, or rheumatoid arthritis (more likely if pain is present in both heels),<ref name="Cutts_2012"/> plantar fascia rupture, and compression neuropathies such as tarsal tunnel syndrome or impingement of the medial calcaneal nerve.<ref name="Rosenbaum_2014"/><ref name="Cutts_2012"/><ref name="Tahririan_2012"/>
A determination about a diagnosis of plantar fasciitis can usually be made based on a person's medical history and physical examination.<ref name="ACOEMfive">Template:Citation, which cites
- Template:Cite book</ref> When a physician suspects a fracture, infection, or some other serious underlying condition, they may order an X-ray to investigate.<ref name="ACOEMfive"/> X-rays are unnecessary to screen for plantar fasciitis for people who stand or walk a lot at work unless imaging is otherwise indicated.<ref name="ACOEMfive"/>
TreatmentEdit
Non-surgicalEdit
About 90% of plantar fasciitis cases improve within six months with conservative treatment,<ref name="Zhiyun_2013"/> and within a year regardless of treatment.<ref name="Goff_2011"/><ref name="Tahririan_2012"/>
The recommended first treatment is a four- to six-week course which combines three elements: daily stretching, daily foot taping (using a special tape around the foot for supporting the arch) and individually tailored education on choosing footwear and other ways of managing the condition.<ref name="NIHR_2021">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Morrissey_2021">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Reduction in pain and stress on the plantar fascia can be done by strengthening the muscles in the foot that support the arches through barefoot exercising, without footwear, compared to exercising in common footwear.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
If plantar fasciitis fails to respond to conservative treatment for at least three months, then extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT) may be considered.<ref name="NIHR_2021" /><ref name="Morrissey_2021" /> Evidence from meta-analyses suggests significant pain relief lasts up to one year after the procedure.<ref name="Zhiyun_2013" /><ref name="Aqil_2013">Template:Cite journal</ref> However, debate about the therapy's efficacy has persisted.<ref name="Lareau_2014" /> ESWT is performed with or without anesthesia though studies suggest giving anesthesia diminishes the procedure's effectiveness.<ref name="Wang_2012">Template:Cite journal</ref> Complications from ESWT are rare and typically benign when present.<ref name="Wang_2012" /> Known complications of ESWT include the development of a mild hematoma or an ecchymosis, redness around the site of the procedure, or migraine.<ref name="Wang_2012" />
The third line of treatment, if shockwave therapy is not effective after around 8 weeks, is using customised foot orthoses which can offer short-term relief from pain.<ref name="NIHR_2021" /><ref name="Morrissey_2021" />
Affected people use further different treatments for plantar fasciitis but many have little evidence to support their use and are not adequately studied.<ref name="Goff_2011" />
Other conservative approaches include rest, massage, heat, ice, and calf-strengthening exercises, weight reduction in the overweight or obese, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin or ibuprofen.<ref name="Tu_2011" /><ref name="Molloy_2012" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The use of NSAIDs to treat plantar fasciitis is common, but their use fails to resolve the pain in 20% of people.<ref name="Molloy_2012" />
Corticosteroid injections are sometimes used for cases of plantar fasciitis that have proven resistant to more conservative measures. There is tentative evidence that injected corticosteroids are effective for short-term pain relief up to one month, but not after that.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Another treatment technique is known as plantar iontophoresis. This technique involves applying anti-inflammatory substances such as dexamethasone or acetic acid topically to the foot and transmitting these substances through the skin with an electric current.<ref name="Molloy_2012"/> Some evidence supports the use of night splints for 1–3 months to relieve plantar fasciitis pain that has persisted for six months.<ref name="Tahririan_2012"/> The night splints are designed to position and maintain the ankle in a neutral position, thereby passively stretching the calf and plantar fascia during sleep.<ref name="Tahririan_2012"/>
SurgeryEdit
Plantar fasciotomy is a surgical treatment and the last resort for refractory plantar fasciitis pain. If plantar fasciitis does not resolve after six months of conservative treatment, then the procedure is considered as a last resort.<ref name="Goff_2011"/><ref name="Tu_2011"/> Minimally invasive and endoscopic approaches to plantar fasciotomy exist but require a specialist who is familiar with specific equipment. The availability of these surgical techniques is limited as of 2012.<ref name="Cutts_2012"/> A 2012 study found 76% of people who underwent endoscopic plantar fasciotomy had complete relief of their symptoms and had few complications (level IV evidence).<ref name="Lareau_2014"/> Heel spur removal during plantar fasciotomy does not appear to improve the surgical outcome.<ref name="Thomas_2010">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Plantar heel pain may occur for multiple reasons. In select cases, surgeons may perform a release of the lateral plantar nerve alongside the plantar fasciotomy.<ref name="Cutts_2012"/><ref name="Thomas_2010"/> Possible complications of plantar fasciotomy include nerve injury, instability of the medial longitudinal arch of the foot,<ref name="Tweed_2009">Template:Cite journal</ref> fracture of the calcaneus, prolonged recovery time, infection, rupture of the plantar fascia, and failure to improve the pain.<ref name="Goff_2011"/> Coblation surgery has recently been proposed as an alternative surgical approach for the treatment of recalcitrant plantar fasciitis.<ref name="Thomas_2010"/>
Gastrocnemius recession is a surgical procedure that involves lengthening the gastrocnemius muscle to reduce tension in the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia. This technique improves the ankle's range of motion, reduces pain, and can help patients return to work, sports, and weight-bearing activities more comfortably. The procedure is particularly beneficial for individuals with limited ankle dorsiflexion (upward bending) due to tight calf muscles, which can exacerbate plantar fasciitis symptoms.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Unproven treatmentsEdit
Botulinum toxin A injections as well as similar techniques such as platelet-rich plasma injections and prolotherapy remain controversial.<ref name="Tahririan_2012"/><ref name="Lareau_2014"/><ref name="Molloy_2012"/><ref name=Monto>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Dry needling is also being researched for treatment of plantar fasciitis.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A systematic review of available research found limited evidence of effectiveness for this technique.<ref name=Cotchett/> The studies were reported to be inadequate in quality and too diverse in methodology for a firm conclusion.<ref name=Cotchett>Template:Cite journal</ref>
A combination of plantar fasciitis stretching and the use of botulinum toxin showed an increase in improvement and functionability in patients.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
EpidemiologyEdit
Plantar fasciitis is the most common type of plantar fascia injury<ref name="Jeswani_2009"/> and is the most common reason for heel pain, responsible for 80% of cases. The condition tends to occur more often in women, military recruits, older athletes, dancers,<ref name="Toronto_2017">Template:Cite bookTemplate:Page needed</ref> people with obesity, and young male athletes.<ref name="Tahririan_2012"/><ref name="Monto_2013">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Orchard_2012"/>
Plantar fasciitis is estimated to affect 1 in 10 people at some point during their lifetime and most commonly affects people between 40 and 60 years of age.<ref name="Rosenbaum_2014"/><ref name="Lareau_2014"/> In the United States alone, more than two million people receive treatment for plantar fasciitis.<ref name="Rosenbaum_2014"/> The cost of treating plantar fasciitis in the United States is estimated to be $284 million each year.<ref name="Rosenbaum_2014"/>
PrognosisEdit
According to studies following patients with plantar fasciitis over several years, 20% to 75% of individuals no longer have any symptoms within a maximum of one year after the onset of symptoms.<ref name = "Hansen_2018">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Having a heel spur (bony protrusion at the heel) in addition to heel pain does not worsen the prognosis of recovery. Individuals with and without heel spurs recover at the same rate.<ref name = "Hansen_2018" />
ReferencesEdit
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Further readingEdit
External linksEdit
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