Virtual community of practice

An online community of practice (OCoP), also known as a virtual community of practice (VCoP), is a community of practice (CoP) that is developed and maintained on the Internet. OCoPs include active members who are practitioners, or "experts," in the specific domain of interest. Members participate in a process of collective learning within their domain.<ref name="Wenger, 2007">Wenger, E. (2007). Communities of practice: A brief introduction. Retrieved October 5th, 2010, from http://www.ewenger.com/theory/</ref> Community social structures are created to assist in knowledge creation and sharing, which is negotiated within an appropriate context. Community members learn through both instruction-based learning and group discourse. Finally, multiple dimensions facilitate the long-term management of support and the ability for synchronous interactions.<ref name="Wenger, 2001">Wenger, E. (2001). Supporting communities of practice: A survey of community-oriented technologies. Retrieved October 30, 2001 from http://www.ewenger.com/tech Template:Webarchive</ref>

To some, a VCoP is a misnomer because the original concept of a CoP was based around situated learning in a co-located setting. With increasing globalization and the growth of the Internet, many now claim that virtual CoPs exist.<ref name="Dubé et al., 2005">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Zarb, 2006">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Hara & Hew, 2007">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Murillo, 2008">Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, some<ref>The Adult Literacy Education Wiki as a Virtual Community of Practice E. Jacobson in C. Kimble and P. Hildreth (eds). Communities of Practice: Creating Learning Environments for Educators. Charlotte NC, Information Age Publishing (2008)</ref> claim that a wiki (such as Wikipedia) is a virtual CoP,<ref name="Bryant et al., 2005">Template:Cite journal</ref> whereas others argue that the essence of a community is place-based – a community of place.

There is also debate on the term VCoP because the form of communication is largely computer-mediated. Few believe that a community of practice may be formed without face-to-face meetings, with many leading CoP researchers stressing the importance of in-person meetings. However, some researchers argue that a VCoP's high use of community technology changes some of its characteristics and introduces new complexities and ambiguities, thus justifying the term VCoP and its area of study.<ref name="Zarb, 2006"/>

Other similar terms include: online,<ref name="Cothrel & Williams, 1999">Template:Cite journal</ref> computer-mediated,<ref name="Etzioni & Etzioni, 1999">Template:Cite journal</ref> electronic<ref name="Wasko & Faraj, 2000">Template:Cite journal</ref> and distributed.<ref>Computer Mediated Communications and Communities of Practice. Hildreth, Kimble & Wright,in Terry Bynum, Simon Rogerson and Jeroen van den Hoven (eds), Proceedings of Ethicomp’98, (March 1998), Rotterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 275 - 286, (1998)</ref><ref name="Wenger et al., 2002">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Kimble and Hildreth (2005)">Template:Cite Q</ref> As the mode of communication can involve face-to-face, telephone and letter, and the defining feature is its distributed nature. Virtual Learning Communities (VLCs) are distinct from Distributed Communities of Practice (DCoP).<ref name="Couros, 2003">Template:Cite journal</ref> Similar to a VCoP, a "mobile community of practice" (MCoP)<ref name="Kietzmann et al., 2013">Template:Cite journal</ref> forms when members primarily engage in a community of practice using mobile phones.

Research suggests that increases in the sharing of tacit knowledge, which occurs within communities of practice, may take place in VCoPs, albeit to a lesser degree.<ref name="Zarb, 2006"/>

Online communities of practice

Communities of practice involve a group of people with shared interests or goals who participate within the community. Online communities of practice can include affinity groups or forums. Community members provide and function as resources for new members by supporting new members in developing and participating in shared activities.

Some researchers argue that virtual communities necessitate a different conceptualization of community, and that technology stewardship is a key element of virtual communities of practice by making virtual communities independent of any one technology.<ref name="Wenger et al., 2009">Template:Cite book</ref>

Current research

Research suggests that through extended connections, reflections, and online discourse, OCoPs can support the growth of a collective community identity.<ref name="Gray, 2004">Gray, B. (2004). Informal Learning in an Online Community of Practice. Journal of Distance Education/Revue de l'enseignement à distance, 19(1), 20–35.</ref> OCoPs provide a virtual space for people who might otherwise never meet, in which they can collaborate and participate in shared activities related to the group's interests and goals.<ref name="Wenger, 2007"/> Additionally, people who are engaged in emergent and uncommon practices, or who have few local resources may have a lower barrier of entry for becoming members of online communities. By participating in community practices, both experienced and novice practitioners can learn together and as a community, which also shapes the personal identities of the members and the group's collective identity.<ref name="Gray, 2004"/> Virtual Communities of Practice may be especially effective for increasing teacher efficacy and reducing professional isolation in computer science education.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Some questions remain as to what level of participation in an online community constitutes legitimate membership of an OCoP. Two types of participation have been identified to distinguish between levels of activity. Active participation means that members regularly contribute to community discourse. Peripheral participation, also called “lurking,” means that members read without contributing. Some studies have concluded that some degree of peripheral participation is expected in online communities.<ref name="preece">Template:Cite journal</ref> Though these members may not contribute to the community discourse, they nevertheless learn from observing, which some researchers would characterize as legitimate membership.<ref name="Gray, 2004"/> Some researchers raise concerns that peripheral participation can threaten an OCoP if more members lurk than actively participate.<ref name="riverin">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Social networking

Web 2.0 applications and social networks have increased the ease by which OCoPs are created and maintained.<ref name="Gunawardena, 2009">Gunawardena, Charlotte N. et al. (2009). A theoretical framework for building online communities of practice with social networking tools. Educational Media International. 46(1), 3-16.</ref>

The structural characteristics of a community of practice include a shared domain of interest, a notion of community, and members who are also practitioners.<ref name="Wenger, 2007"/> While Internet applications may incorporate one of these characteristics, they may not support a full community in practice.<ref name="Wenger, 2001"/>

Social networks allow for the creation of clearly defined domains of interest in which the interactions between people can support communities with common and recorded histories. Social network tools allow members of OCoPs to create and share knowledge and develop cultural historical processes.<ref name="Gunawardena, 2009"/>

Advantages

An online community of practice enables participants to read, submit and receive feedback from the community. Peripheral participants (lurkers) can still develop the knowledge and skills from communal resources that are necessary for novice practitioners. Veteran community members support novices, resulting in an atmosphere of mentorship. As new practitioners develop their understanding and expertise, they can participate in expanding the community's field of knowledge.<ref name="Gunawardena, 2009"/>

The asynchronous nature of many online forums (e.g. blogs, wikis) allows participants to be involved at their convenience. The forums maintain a record of ideas, discourse and resources, creating an archive of expertise for a field of practice that can be accessed at any time from nearly anywhere.<ref name="Gray, 2004"/>

Professionals who work alone or are the only person from their field of practice in a work setting have indicated a reduced sense of isolation after participating in an OCoP. The contributions of the group help identify characteristics of a practitioner, resulting in both a sense of the overall community's identity and the individual's identity within the group.<ref name="Gray, 2004"/>

Disadvantages

Organizational Impact

Establishing a VCoP within an existing organization may disrupt the organization's social, cultural, and political systems through questioning.<ref name="Dubé et al., 2005" /> Change management strategies might mitigate this disruption through different stages of a VCoP's development.<ref name="Dubé et al., 2005" />

Technology

A common hindrance to participation in online communities of practice is the required technology. Members who lack access to computers, PDAs or similar web-accessing technology are precluded from participating in an OCoP. Members with slow or unreliable equipment are unable to participate to their full potential and may find the technical difficulties so discouraging they withdraw completely. Likewise, the technical aptitude required to participate online can be daunting to individuals unfamiliar with the software or platform being used.<ref name="Gray, 2004"/>

Forums

The lack of physical identification and body language in text-only forums can make it difficult to foster meaningful connections between members.<ref name = "Kimble, 2011">Template:Cite Q</ref> Without a sense of connectivity with other practitioners, involvement may falter.<ref name="Preece, 2004">Template:Cite journal</ref> Moderators of an OCoP forum may strengthen the OCoP through activities, events, and occasions in order to promote involvement. Individuals who return after a period of non-participation may feel overwhelmed or discouraged by the amount of new information and posts.<ref name="Gray, 2004"/>

Diversity of participants

The varying levels of knowledge, skill and experience within an OCoP can deter less confident members from participating in the community. The diverse nature of a community can also create linguistic and cultural barriers to participation. Discourse and jargon can create confusion and misunderstanding, and clarifying communication errors online can prove difficult.<ref name="Gunawardena, 2009"/>

Examples of online collaborative tools

Online tools are the means for collaboration between individuals who may be located across the globe.<ref name="Srinivas, 2008">Srinivas, H (2008). Collaborative learning enhances critical thinking. The Global Development Research Center: Knowledge Management, http://www.gdrc.org/kmgmt/c-learn.</ref> They may include online tools specifically developed to address the needs of communities of practice<ref>Implementing Best Practices (IBP) Knowledge Gateway http://my.ibpinitiative.org/</ref> or other types of tools used for OCoPs.

Social networking sites

The first social network site (SNS), SixDegrees.com, was created in 1997.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Examples of social networking sites include:

• LinkedIn
• Facebook
• MySpace

Virtual worlds

Virtual worlds, which are online community-based environments, are being used in both educational and professional settings. In education, these virtual worlds are used to communicate information and allow for face-to-face virtual interaction between students and teachers. They also allow students to use resources provided by the teacher in both the physical and virtual classroom. In professional environments, virtual training provides virtual visits to company locations, as well as flexible training that can be converted from in-person classroom to online virtual content. Virtual worlds provide training simulations for what could otherwise be hazardous situations.

Companies are using virtual worlds to exchange information and ideas.<ref name="Heiphetz et al., 2010">Heiphetz, Alex and Woodhill, Gary (2010). Training and Collaboration with Virtual Worlds. New York: McGraw-Hill</ref> In addition, virtual worlds are used for technical support and business improvements. Case studies document how virtual worlds provide teamwork and training simulations that otherwise be inaccessible. Examples of virtual worlds include:

• Second Life
• Whyville

Information sharing

Online tools are available for sharing information, which can be used to communicate thoughts or ideas, and provide a setting necessary for collaborative knowledge building.<ref name="Gunawardena, 2009"/> Activities associated with these tools can be integrated into the presentation of online classroom and/or training materials.

Examples of tools for information sharing include:

• Wikis
• Google Docs
• Blogs

Decision making

Online tools and platforms can also support deliberation and voting. These may be used by political organizations such as Podemos. Examples of tools and platforms include:

• Loomio
• Reddit
• Appgree
• Agora Voting

See also

• Community of practice
• Computer-supported collaborative learning
• Network of practice
• Online ethnography
• Online participation
• Virtual community
• Virtual team
• Virtual volunteering

References

• Ackerman, & G. Mark, (Eds.), Proceedings of GROUP International Conference on Supporting Group Work. (pp. 11–20). New York: ACM Press.
• Preece, J. & Maloney-Krichmar, D. (2003) Online Communities: Focusing on Sociability and Usability. In J. Jacko and A. Sears, A. (Eds.), The human-computer interaction handbook (pp. 596–620).Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Template:Cite journal

External links

• Template:Cite book ( A critical review of virtual CoPs )
• Where is the Action in Virtual Communities of Practice? Another critical review of virtual CoPs
• Communities of Practice: Going Virtual
• Distributed Design Teams as Communities of Practice
• Virtual Communities of Practice: Differentiated Consequences for Individuals in Two Organisational Contexts
• Knowledge Networking: Structure and Performance in Networks of Practice
• DARnet wiki - Action Research with Distributed Communities of Practice