Marquesan language

Template:Short description {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template other Template:Main other

Marquesan is a collection of East-Central Polynesian dialects, of the Marquesic group, spoken in the Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia. They are usually classified into two groups, North Marquesan and South Marquesan, roughly along geographic lines.<ref name="atlas">See Charpentier & François (2015).</ref>

PhonologyEdit

The most striking feature of the Marquesan languages is their almost universal replacement of the {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} of other Polynesian languages by a {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (glottal stop).<ref name="sounds"/>

Like other Polynesian languages, the phonology of Marquesan languages is characterized by a scarcity of consonants and a comparative abundance of vowels. The consonant phonemes are:

	Labial	Alveolar	Velar	Glottal
Plosive	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Fricative	Template:IPA link Template:IPA link			Template:IPA link
Nasal	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Liquid		Template:IPA link

Of this small number of consonants, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is found only in eastern Nuku Hiva (Tai Pi Marquesan), and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is found only in South Marquesan dialects. In writing, the phoneme {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is written Template:Angbr, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is written Template:Okina, the [[Template:Okinaokina]].

Unlike most Austronesian languages, the {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is not an isolated nasal: it is found only in conjunction with a following {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. So, whereas the Samoan word for 'bay' is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, it is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in Tai Pi Marquesan, and is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. This word is useful to demonstrate one of the more predictable regular consonantal differences between the northern and southern dialects: in North Marquesan, the word is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and in South Marquesan, it is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.Template:Citation needed

The phoneme {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is represented with the letter Template:Angbr; however, it is realized phonetically as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, depending on the following vowel.Template:Example needed

The vowel phonemes are the same as in other Polynesian languages, long and short versions of each:

	Front		Central		Back
	Long	Short	Long	Short	Long	Short
High	iː	i			uː	u
Mid	eː	e			oː	o
Low			aː	a

AlphabetEdit

A E F H I K M N O P R S T U V Template:Okina

a e f h i k m n o p r s t u v Template:Okina <ref>Marquesan Pronunciation Guide</ref>

Morpho-syntaxEdit

Noun and verb phrasesEdit

Verbal particles are placed before the verb they modify.<ref>Margaret Mutu & Ben Teìkitutoua (2002), p. 38</ref>

Verbal Phrase<ref name="Margaret Mutu 2002 p. 40">Margaret Mutu & Ben Teìkitutoua (2002), p. 40</ref>
Verbal Particles		example	example in a sentence
past	lang}}	lang}} (asked)	lang}} (the youth asked)
present	lang}}	lang}} (think)	lang}} (I think of my mother)
perfective	lang}}	lang}} (was born)	lang}} (I was born at Hakehatau)
imperfective	lang}}	lang}} (going)	lang}} (where are you going?)
inceptive	lang}}	lang}} (then they eat)	lang}} (...when finish that, then do they eat)
imperative	lang}}	lang}} (go!)	lang}} (go to the doctor!)

A noun phrase in Marquesan is any phrase beginning with either a case marker or a determiner. Case markers or prepositions always precede the determiners, which in turn precede the number markers. As such, they all precede the noun they modify.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref>

Nominal Phrase Markers<ref name=":0" />
Articles		Demonstratives		Other
definite singular	lang}}	this	lang}}	a certain	lang}}
indefinite	lang}}	that	lang}}	other	lang}}
dual/paucal definite	lang}}	that	lang}}
anaphoric	lang}}

Nominal Number Markers<ref name="Margaret Mutu 2002 p. 40"/>	Number Markers
dual	lang}}
dual/paucal	lang}}
plural	lang}}

There are 11 personal pronouns which are distinguished by singular, dual, and plural. As well as that, there are two other personal pronouns which distinguish possession.Template:Sfn Template:Rp

PronounsTemplate:Sfn Template:Rp
		Singular	Dual/Paucal	Plural	Possession
1st person	exclusive	{{#invoke:Lang\|lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	{{#invoke:Lang\|lang}}
1st person	inclusive	{{#invoke:Lang\|lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	{{#invoke:Lang\|lang}}
2nd person		lang}}	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
3rd person		lang}}	lang}}	lang}}

Complex sentences use verbal nouns in subordinate clauses.

Template:Interlinear

Hanaiapa, o Tua-i-kaie, ua noho me te vehine pootu oko<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

PossessionEdit

Margaret Mutu & Ben Teìkitutoua (2002) present descriptions and examples of possession in Ùa Pou (a north Marquesan dialect). All examples in this section are taken from their work. See notes for more information.

Possession in Marquesan is marked by prepositional particles affixed to the noun phrase which they modify. These prepositional particles relate the phrase as a whole to other parts of the sentence or discourse and therefore can be considered centrifugal particles.<ref name="Margaret Mutu 2002 p. 72">Margaret Mutu & Ben Teìkitutoua (2002), p. 88</ref> Possession is essentially different from the other types of adposition modification in that it marks a relationship between two noun phrases as opposed to that between the verbal phrase and the noun phrase.

There are four possession markers in Marquesan. They are the prepositions: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Possessive prepositions {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} translate as 'of' while {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} are attributive, possessive prepositions which translate either as 'belong to, of' or 'for'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

a and o possessive prepositionsEdit

In these examples, the relation of two noun phases with the use of the possessive prepositions {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} can be seen. The preposition is affixed to the possessor noun phrase which in turn dominates the possessed phrase.

Template:Interlinear

na and no attributive, possessive prepositionsEdit

In these examples, we see the relation of constituents which form a noun phrase. This is an example of attributive, alienable possession.

Template:Interlinear

Dominant vs subordinate possessionEdit

Marquesan distinguishes between two contrastive types of possession.<ref name="Margaret Mutu 2002 p. 72" /> The first can be described in very broad terms as possession in which the possessor is dominant, active, superior, or in control of the possessed. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} mark this type of possession:

Template:Interlinear

On the other hand, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} indicate possession where the possessor is subordinate, passive, inferior to, or lacking in control over the possessed:

Template:Interlinear

Locative phrasesEdit

Locative constructions in Marquesan follow this pattern (elements in parentheses are optional):

Preposition - (Modifier) - lexical head - (Directional) - (Demonstrative) - (Modifier) - Possessive Attribute/Attributive Noun PhrasesTemplate:Sfn Template:Rp

Template:Interlinear

This locative syntactic pattern is common among Polynesian languages.Template:Sfn Template:Rp

Dialect diversityEdit

North Marquesan is spoken in the northern islands (Nuku Hiva, Ua Pou, and Ua Huka), and South Marquesan in the southern islands (Hiva Oa, Tahuata, and Fatu Hiva). In Ua Huka, which was almost entirely depopulated in the 19th century and repopulated with people from both the Northern and Southern Marquesas, the language shares traits of both North Marquesan and South Marquesan. Comparative data on the various dialects of Marquesan can be found in the Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia (Charpentier & François 2015).<ref name="sounds">For regular sound correspondences between Marquesan dialects and other Polynesian languages, see Charpentier & François (2015), p.93.</ref>

The most noticeable differences between the varieties are Northern Marquesan {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in some words where South Marquesan has {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (glottal stop), and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in all words where South Marquesan has {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

The table below compares a selection of words in various dialectal varieties of Marquesan, according to the Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia,<ref>The authors of the Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia judged the variety spoken on Tahuata to be too similar to Hiva Oa's to form a separate survey point.</ref> with their pronunciation in the IPA. Tahitian and Hawaiian are also added for comparison.

	North Marquesan			South Marquesan		Hawaiian	Tahitian
	Nuku Hiva	Ua Pou	Ua Huka	Hiva Oa	Fatu Hiva	Hawaii	Tahiti
hello	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}} ({{#invoke:IPA\|main}} 'love, compassion')
human being	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
life	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
body	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
mouth	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
head	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
to see	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
to speak	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}} ({{#invoke:IPA\|main}} 'to tell tales')	main}}
dog	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
louse	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
yesterday	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
sky	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
moon	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
wind	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
sea	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}} ({{#invoke:IPA\|main}} 'sea, salt')
coral	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}} ({{#invoke:IPA\|main}} 'plaster, mortar')	main}}
fish	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
octopus	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
island, land	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
river	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
taro	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
coconut	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
house	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
man (male)	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
woman	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
grandmother	main}} ('grandparent mother')	main}}/ ('grandparent mother')	main}} ('grandparent mother')	main}} ('grandparent woman')	main}} ('grandparent woman')	main}} ('grandparent woman')	main}} ('mom old person')
chief, king	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
traditional temple precinct, marae	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
you (singular)	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}

The northern dialects fall roughly into four groups:

Tai Pi, spoken in the eastern third of Nuku Hiva, and according to some linguists, a separate language,Template:Citation needed Tai Pi Marquesan
Teiʻi, spoken in western Nuku Hiva
Eastern Ua Pou
Western Ua Pou

The southern dialects fall roughly into three groups:

Pepane: Eastern Hiva ʻOa and Ua Huka
Fatu Hiva
Nuku: Western Hiva ʻOa and Tahuata

North Marquesan exhibits some original characteristics. While some Polynesian languages maintained the velar nasal {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, many have lost the distinction between the nasals {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, merging both into {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. North Marquesan, like South Island Māori dialects of New Zealand, prefers {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Another feature is that, while some Polynesian languages replace *k with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, North Marquesan has retained it. (Tahitian and formal Samoan have no {{#invoke:IPA|main}} whatsoever, and the {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in modern Hawaiian is pronounced either [k] or [t] and derives from Polynesian *t.)

The dialects of Ua Huka are often incorrectly classified as North Marquesan; they are instead transitional. While the island is in the northern Marquesas group, the dialects show more morphological and phonological affinities with South Marquesan. The North Marquesan dialects are sometimes considered two separate languages:Template:Citation needed North Marquesan and Tai Pi Marquesan, the latter being spoken in the valleys of the eastern third of the island of Nuku Hiva, in the ancient province of Tai Pi. Puka-Pukan, spoken in Puka-Puka and the Disappointment Islands in northeastern Tuamotu, is a dialect of South Marquesan, and should not be confused with the homonymous Pukapukan language spoken in Pukapuka, one of the Cook Islands.