Akan language

Template:Pp Template:Short description {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other

File:WIKITONGUES- Raphael speaking Twi.webm

A man speaking Asante Twi

Akan (Template:IPAc-en<ref>Template:Citation</ref>) is the largest language of Ghana, and the principal native language of the Akan people, spoken over much of the southern half of Ghana.<ref name="rutgers">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> About 80% of Ghana's population speak Akan as a first or second language,<ref name="rutgers" /> and about 44% of Ghanaians are native speakers.<ref name="rutgers" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Akan is also spoken across the border in parts of Côte d'Ivoire.<ref name="rutgers" />

Three dialects were developed as literary standards with distinct orthographies: Asante and Akuapem, collectively known as Twi, and Fante.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Despite being mutually intelligible,<ref name="rutgers" /><ref name="brong" /> they were inaccessible in written form to speakers of the other standards until the Akan Orthography Committee (AOC)'s development of a common Akan orthography in 1978, based mainly on Akuapem dialect.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> As the first Akan variety to be used for Bible translation, Akuapem had become the prestige dialect.<ref name="omniglot">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

With the Atlantic slave trade, Akan languages were introduced to the Caribbean and South America, notably in Suriname, spoken by the Ndyuka, and in Jamaica, spoken by the Jamaican Maroons, also known as the Coromantee.<ref name="rutgers" /> The cultures of the descendants of escaped slaves in the interior of Suriname and the Maroons in Jamaica still retain Akan influences, including the Akan naming practice of naming children after the day of the week on which they are born, e.g. Akwasi/Kwasi for a boy or Akosua for a girl born on a Sunday. In Jamaica and Suriname, the Anansi spider stories are still well-known.<ref name="rutgers" /><ref name="brong">The Brong (Bono) dialect of Akan” by Florence Abena Dolphyne University of Ghana, Legon 1979.</ref>

History

In history, the Akans who live in Ghana migrated in successive waves between the 11th and 18th centuries. Others inhabit the eastern part of Côte d'Ivoire and parts of Togo.<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They migrated from the north to occupy the forest and coastal areas in the south in the 13th century. The Akans have a strong oral history tradition of their past and they're also known in the art history world for symbolic artifacts of wood, metal and terracotta.<ref name="rutgers" /> Their cultural ideas are expressed in stories and proverbs and also in designs such as symbols used in carvings and on clothes.<ref name="rutgers" /> The cultural and historic nature of the Akans in Ghana makes it an area of research for various disciplines such as folklore, literary studies, linguistics, anthropology and history.<ref name="rutgers" />

Dialects

Akan is a dialect continuum that is closely related to the Bia languages, the other Central Tano languages spoken by the Akan people. The relationships of the major Akan dialects are as follows:Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Brong and Wasa have limited mutual intelligibility with each other, and so are separate languages by that standard.<ref name=e27/> Neighboring Brong and Asante are mutually intelligible, though geographically more distant Brong and Fante are less so.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Phonology

The Akan dialects contain extensive palatalization, vowel harmony, and tone terracing.

Consonants

Before front vowels, all Asante consonants are palatalized (or labio-palatalized), and the stops are to some extent affricated. The allophones of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are quite complex. In the table below, palatalized allophones which involve more than minor phonetic palatalization are specified, in the context of the vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. These sounds do occur before other vowels, such as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, though in most cases not commonly.

In Asante, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} followed by a vowel is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, but in Akuapem it remains {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The sequence {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

A word final {{#invoke:IPA|main}} can be heard as a glottal stop {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. There is also a nasalization of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, when occurring before nasal vowels.

The transcriptions in the tables below are in the order /phonemic/, [phonetic]. Note that orthographic Template:Angle bracket is ambiguous; in textbooks, Template:Angle bracket = {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be distinguished from {{#invoke:IPA|main}} with a diacritic: {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Likewise, velar Template:Angle bracket ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) may be transcribed {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Orthographic Template:Angle bracket is palatalized {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

Akan consonant phonemes

		Labial	Alveolar	Dorsal	Labialized
Nasal	plain	/Template:IPAlink/	Template:IPAslink		/nʷ/
	geminated		/nː/		/nːʷ/
Stop	voiceless	/Template:IPA link/	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink	/kʷ/
	voiced	/Template:IPAlink/	/Template:IPA link/	Template:IPAslink	/ɡʷ/
Fricative		/Template:IPAlink/	/Template:IPAlink/	Template:IPAslink	/hʷ/
Trill			Template:IPAslink
Approximant			Template:IPAslink	/Template:IPA link/	Template:IPAslink

Allophones of Akan consonants

		Labial	Alveolar		Dorsal		Labialized
			Phoneme	Allophones	Phoneme	Allophones	Phoneme	Allophones
Nasal	plain	/Template:IPAlink/	Template:IPAslink	[[[:Template:IPA link]]~Template:IPAlink, Template:IPAlink, ɲĩ]			/nʷ/	[ŋʷ, ɲᶣ]
	geminated		/nː/	[ŋː, ɲːĩ]			/nːʷ/	[ɲːᶣ]
Stop	voiceless	/Template:IPA link/	Template:IPAslink	[[[:Template:IPAlink]], tçi]	Template:IPAslink	[[[:Template:IPAlink]], tɕ~cç]	/kʷ/	[kʷ, tɕᶣi]
	voiced	/Template:IPAlink/	/Template:IPA link/		Template:IPAslink	[[[:Template:IPA link]], Template:IPAlink, dʑ~ɟʝ]	/ɡʷ/	[ɡʷ, dʑᶣi]
Fricative		/Template:IPAlink/	/Template:IPAlink/		Template:IPAslink	[h, ç]	/hʷ/	[hʷ, çᶣi]
Trill			Template:IPAslink	[[[:Template:IPAlink]], Template:IPAlink, Template:IPAlink]
Approximant			Template:IPAslink		/Template:IPA link/		Template:IPAslink	[w, ɥ]

Akan consonant orthography

		Labial	Alveolar	Dorsal	Labialized
Nasal	plain	Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket		Template:Angle bracket
	geminated		Template:Angle bracket		Template:Angle bracket
Stop	voiceless	Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket
	voiced	Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket
Fricative		Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket
Trill			Template:Angle bracket
Approximant			Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket	Template:Angle bracket

Vowels

The Akan dialects have fourteen to fifteen vowels: four to five "tense" vowels (advanced tongue root; +ATR or -RTR), five "lax" vowels (retracted tongue root, +RTR or -ATR), which are not entirely contrastively represented by the seven-vowel orthography, and five nasal vowels, which are not represented at all. All fourteen were distinguished in the Gold Coast alphabet of the colonial era. A tongue-root distinction in orthographic a is only found in some subdialects of Fante, but not in the literary form; in Asante and Akuapem there are harmonic allophones of {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, but neither is ATR.Template:Clarify The two vowels written e ({{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) and o ({{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) are often not distinguished in pronunciation.

Akan vowel phonemes

	Front		Central		Back
	-RTR	+RTR	-RTR	+RTR	-RTR	+RTR
Close	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink			Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink
Mid	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink			Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink
Open			Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink

Orthog.	-RTR	+RTR
i	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
e	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
ɛ		main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
a	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
ɔ		main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
o	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
u	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}

Tongue root harmony

Akan vowels engage in a form of vowel harmony with the root of the tongue.Template:Sfn

1. +RTR vowels followed by the -RTR non-mid vowels /i a u/ become -RTR. This is generally reflected in the orthography: That is, orthographic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} become i e a o u. However, it is no longer reflected in the case of subject and possessive pronouns, giving them a consistent spelling. This rule takes precedence over the next one.
2. After the +RTR non-high vowels /e̙ a̙ o̙/, -RTR mid vowels /e o/ become +RTR high vowels /i̙ u̙/. This is not reflected in the orthography, for both sets of vowels are spelled Template:Angbr, and in many dialects this rule does not apply, for these vowels have merged.

Tones

Akan has three phonemic tones, high (/H/), mid (/M/), and low (/L/). Initial syllable may only be high or low.

Tone terracing

The phonetic pitch of the three tones depends on their environment, often being lowered after other tones, producing a steady decline known as tone terracing.

/H/ tones have the same pitch as a preceding /H/ or /M/ tone within the same tonic phrase, whereas /M/ tones have a lower pitch. That is, the sequences /HH/ and /MH/ have a level pitch, whereas the sequences /HM/ and /MM/ have a falling pitch. /H/ is lowered (downstepped) after a /L/.

/L/ is the default tone, which emerges in situations such as reduplicated prefixes. It is always at bottom of the speaker's pitch range, except in the sequence /HLH/, in which case it is raised in pitch but the final /H/ is still lowered. Thus /HMH/ and /HLH/ are pronounced with distinct but very similar pitches.

After the first "prominent" syllable of a clause, usually the first high tone, there is a downstep. This syllable is usually stressed.Template:Sfn

Morphology

Formation of plural nouns

Akan historically employed a noun class system similar to that of Bantu languages. Although this system is now largely defunct, remnants of it persist in modern Akan plural formation, particularly through prefixes and suffixes.Template:Sfn The current pluralisation system blends fossilised class prefixes with newer morphological strategies, especially for human nouns. Notably, human nouns have preserved more elements of the old system than non-human nouns and can employ multiple plural-marking strategies simultaneously.Template:Sfn

Modern Akan employs several strategies for plural formation, representing a transition from its historical purely prefixal systemTemplate:Sfn to a mixed system using both prefixes and suffixes. These strategies vary based on semantic categories, with human nouns showing particularly complex patterns.Template:Sfn

Prefixal plural formation

Many Akan nouns form their plurals through the addition or replacement of nasal prefixes ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), reflecting remnants of the old noun class system.Template:Sfn

Singular	Plural
lang}} "child"	lang}} "children"
lang}} "animal"	lang}} "animals"
lang}} "family"	lang}} "families"
lang}} "goat"	lang}} "goats"
lang}} "box"	lang}} "boxes"
lang}} "rabbit"	lang}} "rabbits"
lang}} "medicine"	lang}} "medicines"
lang}} "dog"	lang}} "dogs"
lang}} "light", "lamp"	lang}} "lights", "lamps"
lang}} "key"	lang}} "keys"

In this process, the original class prefix (typically {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is replaced by a homorganic nasal prefix that assimilates to the initial consonant of the root word. For example, initial {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} becomes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} becomes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in plural forms.Template:Sfn

Suffixal plural formation

A relatively newer morphological development involves using plural suffixes, primarily for human and agentive nouns. This development is particularly significant as it shows how Akan is evolving from its historical prefix-based system. Human nouns demonstrate the most complex plural marking, often combining both old prefixal and new suffixal strategies — a pattern that highlights their special status in the language's grammatical system.Template:Sfn

With {{#invoke

Lang|lang}}

This suffix is used primarily for kinship and social role terms.

Singular	Plural
lang}} "father"	lang}} "fathers"
lang}} "grandparent"/"grandchild"	lang}} "grandparents"/"grandchildren"
lang}} "sibling"	lang}} "siblings"
lang}} "wife"	lang}} "wives"

With {{#invoke

Lang|lang}}

This suffix is used with profession- or agent-based nouns.

Singular	Plural
lang}} "teacher"	lang}} "teachers"
lang}} "prophet"	lang}} "prophets"
lang}} "priest"	lang}} "priests"
lang}} "witch"	lang}} "witches"

In some cases, both a prefix and a suffix are used for pluralisation, especially with human nouns (e.g., {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). This double marking represents a unique development in Akan's plural system, where human nouns have not only preserved elements of the old class system but have also incorporated new morphological strategies, resulting in a more complex marking pattern than non-human nouns.

Invariant nouns

Certain Akan nouns remain unchanged in the plural, representing another way the historical noun class system has been simplified. While human nouns have developed complex plural marking strategies, these invariant nouns — including mass nouns and inherently plural items — have moved in the opposite direction by eliminating plural marking entirely.Template:Sfn

Singular / Plural
lang}} "money"
lang}} "eye"/"eyes"
lang}} "salt"/"salts"
lang}} "water"/"waters"

Historical noun classes

Akan originally featured a more extensive system of noun classes marked by singular/plural prefixes.Template:Sfn These may be reconstructed as follows:Template:Sfn

Singular			Plural
Class	Prefix	Typical domain	Class	Prefix
1	lang}}/{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}	Humans	5	lang}}
2	lang}}/{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}	Humans, animals, instruments	6	lang}}/{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
3	lang}}/{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}	Inanimates
4	lang}}

Over time, this class system has undergone morphological decay. Modern Akan lacks productive class agreement between nouns and adjectives or verbs, and many prefixes have become fossilised elements perceived as part of the noun stem.Template:Sfn

Orthography

Uppercase	A	B	D	E	Ɛ	F	G	H	I	K	L	M	N	O	Ɔ	P	R	S	T	U	W	Y
Lowercase	a	b	d	e	ɛ	f	g	h	i	k	l	m	n	o	ɔ	p	r	s	t	u	w	y

The letters C, J, Q, V, X and Z are also used, but only in loanwords.Template:Cn

Literature

The Akan languages have a rich literature in proverbs, folktales, and traditional drama, as well as a new literature in dramas, short stories, and novels.<ref name="Nina Pawlak 2010">Nina Pawlak, “Akan Folk Literature and the Beginning of Writing in Twi,” Literatures in African Languages: Theoretical Issues and Sample Surveys by B. W. Andrzejewski and S. Pilaszewicz, 128-157 (Cambridge University Press, 2010).</ref> This literature began to be documented in written form in the late 1800s.<ref>J G Christaller, Twi mmebuse̲m, mpensã-ahansĩa mmoaano. A collection of three thousand and six hundred Tshi proverbs, in use among the Negroes of the Gold Coast speaking the Asante and Fante language, collected, together with their variations, and alphabetically arranged, The Basel German Evangelical Missionary Society, 1879.</ref> Later, Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia collected a number of proverbs and folktales, including Funeral Dirges of the Akan People (1969), Folk Songs of Ghana (1963), and Akan Poetry (1958). Some of the important authors in the language are A. A. Opoku (dramatist), E. J. Osew (dramatist), K. E. Owusu (novelist), and R. A. Tabi (dramatist and novelist).<ref name="Nina Pawlak 2010" /> The Bureau of Ghana Languages has been unable to continue printing novels in the language, and the following are out of print: Obreguo, Okrabiri, Afrakoma, Obeede, Fia Tsatsala, and Ku Di Fo Nanawu.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Education

Primary

In 1978 the AOC established a common orthography for all of Akan, which is used as the medium of instruction in primary school.<ref name="Akan language">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="The Alternation Strategies in Multilingual Settings">Template:Cite book</ref> The Akan language is recognized for literacy, from at least the lower primary level (primary 1–3).<ref name="rutgers" />

University

Akan languages are studied at several major universities in the United States, including Ohio University, Ohio State University, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Harvard University, Boston University, Indiana University, University of Michigan, and The University of Florida. Akan has been a regular African language of study in the annual Summer Cooperative African Languages Institute (SCALI) program. The Akan language is studied in these universities as a bachelor or masters program.<ref name="rutgers" />

Vocabulary

Common phrases

English	Akan
Welcome	lang}}
Yes	lang}} (Asante) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Fante) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Akuapem)
Okay/Alright	lang}}
No/Nope	lang}}/{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Fante) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Asante)
Good night	lang}} (Asante) literally "sleep well"
I'm going to sleep	lang}} (Fante)
How's it going?/How are you?	lang}} (Asante) could also be used in the non-literal sense as "hello"
Thank you	lang}}
Please/Excuse me/I beg your pardon	lang}}
Song(s)/Music	lang}} (Fante) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Asante)
What is your name?	lang}}/{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Asante) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Fante)
My name is.../I'm called...	lang}}/{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Fante)
How old is he/she?	lang}} (Fante)
How old are you?	lang}} (Fante)
Where is it?	lang}}
I am going/I am taking my leave	lang}}
Good	lang}} (Fante) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Asante)
Leave	lang}} (Fante) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Asante)
Well done	lang}} (Fante)
Stop	lang}}
Sleep	lang}}
Come	lang}}
Come here	lang}}
Come and eat	lang}}

Placenames

English	Akan
Home	lang}}
School	lang}}
Church	lang}}
Market	lang}}
University/Tertiary institution	lang}}
Hospital	lang}}

System of given names

The Akan peoples use a common Akan (Ghana) naming system of giving the first name to a child, based on the day of the week that the child was born. Almost all the tribes and clans in Ghana have a similar custom.

Day		Male name	Female name
English	Akan
Monday	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
Tuesday	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
Wednesday	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
Thursday	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
Friday	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
Saturday	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}
Sunday	lang}}	lang}}	lang}}

Bibliography

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Further reading

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• Template:Cite book Reprint: Template:Cite book

External links

• English-Tshi (Asante) : a dictionary = Enyiresi-Twi nsem-asekyere-nhõma (1909), Evangelische Missionsgesellschaft in Basel
• Akan Language Resources
• Journal of West African Languages: Akan
• My First Akan Dictionary Online Akan (Twi, Fanti) Dictionary
• Twi Word of the Day and Articles
• Akan Language Resources
• The Bible in Twi
• The Quran in Twi Language
• Poem translated into Twi
• Watch Twi Music Videos
• Prayer in Asante used by Ghanaians of the Baha'i Faith
• Open Twi Project, a project to bring Asante to software.
• Literature and articles in Ahanta Literature and articles in Ahanta dialect.