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Aerobic exercise

Article Discussion

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File:Bicycles at Frederiksberg - Flickr - Kristoffer Trolle.jpg
Cycling is an aerobic form of exercise.

Aerobic exercise, also known as cardio, is physical exercise<ref name="Exercise and Physical Fitness">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> of low to high intensity that depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process.<ref name="PlowmanSmith2007">Template:Cite book</ref> "Aerobic" is defined as "relating to, involving, or requiring oxygen",<ref name="Cooper1997">Template:Cite book</ref> and refers to the use of oxygen to meet energy demands during exercise via aerobic metabolism adequately.<ref name="McArdleKatch2006">Template:Cite book</ref> Aerobic exercise is performed by repeating sequences of light-to-moderate intensity activities for extended periods of time.<ref name="PlowmanSmith2007" /> According to the World Health Organization, over 31% of adults and 80% of adolescents fail to maintain the recommended levels of physical activity.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Examples of cardiovascular or aerobic exercise are medium- to long-distance running or jogging, swimming, cycling, stair climbing and walking.<ref name=":4">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

For reducing the risk of health issues, 2.5 hours of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise per week is recommended.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> At the same time, even doing an hour and a quarter (11 minutes/day) of exercise can reduce the risk of early death, cardiovascular disease, stroke, and cancer.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Aerobic exercise may be better referred to as "solely aerobic", as it is designed to be low-intensity enough that all carbohydrates are aerobically turned into energy via mitochondrial ATP production. Mitochondria are organelles that rely on oxygen for the metabolism of carbs, proteins, and fats. Aerobic exercise causes a remodeling of mitochondrial cells within the tissues of the liver and heart.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

HistoryEdit

File:1896 Olympic marathon.jpg
Athletes training for the 1896 Olympic marathon

Template:See also Archibald Hill, a British physiologist, introduced the concepts of maximal oxygen uptake and oxygen debt in 1922.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> German physician Otto Meyerhof and Hill shared the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their independent work related to muscle energy metabolism.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Building on this work, scientists began measuring oxygen consumption during exercise. Henry Taylor at the University of Minnesota and Swedish scientists Per-Olof Åstrand and Bengt Saltin made notable contributions in the 1950s and 60s.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Contributions were also made by the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre as well as various German universities.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

After World War II, health-oriented recreational activities such as jogging became popular.<ref name=":0">Fit Bodies. Fitness Culture and Gym Sassatelli, Roberta. 2006.</ref> The Royal Canadian Air Force Exercise Plans, developed by Dr. Bill Orban and published in 1961, helped to launch modern fitness culture.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Physical therapists Col. Pauline Potts and Dr. Kenneth H. Cooper,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> both of the United States Air Force, advocated the concept of aerobic exercise. In the 1960s, Cooper started research into preventive medicine. He conducted the first extensive research on aerobic exercise on over 5,000 U.S. Air Force personnel<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> after becoming intrigued by the belief that exercise can preserve one's health. In 1966 he coined the term "aerobics". Two years later, in 1968, he published a book of the same name. In 1970, he created the Cooper Institute for non-profit research and education devoted to preventive medicine. He published a mass-market version of his book The New Aerobics in 1979. Cooper encouraged millions into becoming active and is now known as the "father of aerobics".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Cooper's book inspired Jacki Sorensen to create aerobic dancing exercise routines, which grew in popularity in the 1970s in the U.S., and at the same time, Judi Missett developed and expanded Jazzercise.

In the 1970s, there was a running boom. It was inspired by the Olympics, the New-York marathon and the advent of cushioned shoes.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Aerobics at home became popular worldwide after the release of Jane Fonda's Workout exercise video in 1982.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":7">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Step aerobics was popular in the 1990s, driven by a step product and program from Reebok shoes.

DefinitionEdit

File:Exercise zones Fox and Haskell.svg
Fox and Haskell formula shows the split between aerobic (light orange) and anaerobic (dark orange) exercise and heart rate.

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Template:More citations needed section Aerobic exercise comprises innumerable forms.<ref name="Exercise and Physical Fitness"/> In general, it is performed at a moderate level of intensity over a relatively long period of time. For example, running a long distance at a moderate pace is an aerobic exercise, but sprinting is not. Playing singles tennis, with near-continuous motion, is generally considered aerobic activity, while activities with brief bursts of energetic movement within longer periods of casual movement may not be aerobic. Some sports are thus inherently "aerobic", while other aerobic exercises, such as fartlek training or aerobic dance classes, are designed specifically to improve aerobic capacity and fitness. It is most common for aerobic exercises to involve the leg muscles, primarily or exclusively. There are some exceptions. For example, rowing to distances of 2,000 meters or more is an aerobic sport that exercises several major muscle groups, including those of the legs, abdominals, chest, and arms.

ExamplesEdit

File:US Army 51673 aerobathon.jpg
A step aerobics exercise instructor motivates her class to keep up the pace.

Moderate activities<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Vigorous activities

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  • Elliptical training<ref name=":4" />
  • Rowing<ref name=":4" />

Versus anaerobic exerciseEdit

Aerobic exercise and fitness can be contrasted with anaerobic exercise, of which strength training and short-distance running are the most salient examples. The two types of exercise differ by the duration and intensity of muscular contractions involved, as well as by how energy is generated within the muscle.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Common kettlebell exercises combine aerobic and anaerobic aspects. Allowing 24 hours of recovery between aerobic and strength exercise leads to greater fitness.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

New research on the endocrine functions of contracting muscles has shown that both aerobic and anaerobic exercise promote the secretion of myokines, with attendant benefits including growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Myokine secretion in turn is dependent on the amount of muscle contracted, and the duration and intensity of contraction. As such, both types of exercise produce endocrine benefits.

In almost all conditions, anaerobic exercise is accompanied by aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) exercises because the less efficient anaerobic metabolism must supplement the aerobic system due to energy demands that exceed the aerobic system's capacity. During anaerobic exercise, the body must generate energy through other processes than aerobic metabolism, including glycolysis paired with lactic acid fermentation, and the phosphocreatine system to generate energy in the form of ATP.

Fuel usageEdit

Depending on the intensity of exercise, the body preferentially utilizes certain fuel forms to meet energy demands. The two main fuel sources for aerobic exercise in the body include fat (in the form of adipose tissue) and glycogen. Amino acids can also be used as a fuel source during aerobic exercise, however in moderate proportions (around 3% of the total energy expenditure during exercise<ref>Clauss, M., & Jensen, J. (2025). Effect of exercise intensity, duration, and volume on protein oxidation during endurance exercise in humans: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 35(4): e70038. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.70038</ref>). At lower intensity aerobic exercise, the body preferentially uses fat as its main fuel source for cellular respiration, however as intensity increases the body preferentially uses glycogen stored in the muscles and liver or other carbohydrates, as it is a quicker source of energy.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Aerobic exercise at low or moderate intensity is not a very efficient way to lose fat in comparison to high intensity aerobic exercise. Lipolysis (hydrolysis of triglyceride into fatty acids),<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> not fat burning (conversion of fatty acid to carbon dioxide), explains the intensity-dependent fat mass reduction. It has been shown that fatty acid is consumed for wound healing, where moderate intensity exercise does not produce significant damage like high intensity exercise. The size of adipose tissue is determined by the magnitude of nutrient competition from muscle and lungs for cell regeneration and energy replenishment after exercise.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Failed verification

Health effectsEdit

Among the possible health benefits of regular aerobic exercise are:<ref name="mayo">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

  • May improve mood<ref name=mayo/><ref name=":4" />
  • Strengthens and enlarges the heart muscle, to improve its pumping efficiency and reduce the resting heart rate, known as aerobic conditioning
  • May improve circulation efficiency and reduce blood pressure
  • May help maintain independence in later life<ref name=mayo/><ref name=":4" />
  • Increases the total number of red blood cells in the body, facilitating transport of oxygen<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
  • Improves mental health, including reducing stress and lowering the incidence of depression, as well as increased cognitive capacity.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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  • Slightly reduced depression may also be observed, especially if aerobic exercises are used as additional treatment for patients with a hematological malignancy<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
  • Reduces the risk for diabetes (One meta-analysis has shown, from multiple conducted studies, that aerobic exercise does help lower Hb A1Clevels for type 2 diabetics.<ref>Snowling, N. J., & Hopkins, W. G. (2006). Effects of Different Modes of Exercise

Training on Glucose Control and Risk Factors for Complications in Type 2 Diabetic Patients A meta-analysis. Diabetes Care, 29(11), 518–2527. http://doi.org/10.2337/dc06-1317</ref>)

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Risks and disadvantagesEdit

Some drawbacks of aerobic exercise include:

  • Overuse injuries of the musculoskeletal system because of repetitive exercise, with young athletes (under the age of 19) particularly at risk<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref>
  • Overtraining syndrome may lead to persistent dysfunction of a number of body systems<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
  • High volumes of training with insufficient calorie intake puts athletes—particularly female ones—at risk for RED-S<ref name=":3" />
  • Aerobic exercise may not be as efficient as other exercise methods. For example, High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been shown to provide similar benefits in a fraction of the time spent exercising per week.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Both the health benefits and the performance benefits, or "training effect", require that the duration and the frequency of exercise both exceed a certain minimum. Most authorities suggest at least twenty minutes performed at least three times per week.<ref>'aerobic exercise', Food and Fitness: A Dictionary of Diet and Exercise, Michael Kent, Oxford University Press, 1997.</ref>

CommercializationEdit

Aerobic exercise has long been a popular approach to achieving weight loss and physical fitness, often taking a commercial form.

  • In the 1970s, Judi Sheppard Missett helped create the market for commercial aerobics with her Jazzercise program,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> at the same time as Jacki Sorensen was expanding her system of aerobic dancing.<ref name=McCormack1981>Template:Cite news</ref>
  • In the 1980s, Richard Simmons hosted an aerobic exercise show on television, and followed Jane Fonda's lead by releasing a series of exercise videos.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

  • In the 1990s, Billy Blanks's Tae Bo helped popularize cardio-boxing workouts that incorporated martial arts movements.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> Reebok shoes popularized step aerobics with their Reebok Step device and training program.<ref name=Hartford2>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

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Further readingEdit

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External linksEdit

Template:Physical exercise

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