Ahimsa

Template:Short description Template:Italic title {{#invoke:other uses|otheruses}} Template:Use dmy dates Template:Use Indian English Template:Contains special characters Template:Jainism Template:Hinduism

File:Lord Mahavira, the torch-bearer of ahimsa.jpg

Lord Mahavira, the twenty-fourth tirthankara of Jainism, and "torch-bearer" of ahimsa

Template:Transliteration (Template:Langx, IAST: Template:IAST, Template:Lit<ref name="Johansson2012">Template:Cite book</ref>) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian religions like Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism.<ref name=evpc/>Template:Sfn<ref name=historyindia2011>Template:Cite book</ref>

Template:Transliteration (also spelled Ahinsa) is one of the cardinal virtues<ref name=evpc/> of Jainism, where it is the first of the Pancha Mahavrata. It is also one of the central precepts of Hinduism and is the first of the five precepts of Buddhism. Template:Transliteration is<ref name="arapura">Template:Cite book</ref> inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself. Template:Transliteration is also related to the notion that all acts of violence have karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Brahmanism had already investigated and refined the principles of Template:Transliteration, the concept reached an extraordinary development in the ethical philosophy of Jainism.<ref name="evpc">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="chapple1990">Template:Cite book</ref> Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and the last Template:Transliteration of Jainism, further strengthened the idea in Template:BCE.<ref>Template:Multiref2</ref> About Template:CE, Valluvar emphasized Template:Transliteration and moral vegetarianism as virtues for an individual, which formed the core of his teachings in the Kural.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Perhaps the most popular advocate of the principle of Template:Transliteration in modern times was Mohandas K. Gandhi.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Template:Transliteration's precept that humans should 'cause no injury' to another living being includes one's deeds, words, and thoughts.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=kaneda2008/> Classical Hindu texts like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as modern scholars,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> disagree about what the principle of Template:Transliteration dictates when one is faced with war and other situations that require self-defence. In this way, historical Indian literature has contributed to modern theories of just war and self-defence.<ref name=balkaran2012>Template:Cite journal</ref>

EtymologyEdit

The word Template:Transliteration—sometimes spelled Template:Transliteration<ref name="Sanskrit dictionary">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>—is derived from the Sanskrit root Template:Transliteration, meaning to strike; Template:Transliteration is injury or harm, while Template:Transliteration (prefixed with the alpha privative), its opposite, is non-harming or nonviolence.<ref name="Sanskrit dictionary"/><ref name="Shukavak N. Dasa">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

OriginsEdit

Reverence for Template:Transliteration can be found in Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist canonical texts. Lord Parshvanatha (the 23rd of 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism) is said to have preached Template:Transliteration as one of the four vows.Template:Sfn<ref name="arapura" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Izawa>Template:Cite journal</ref> No other Indian religion has developed the non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as much as has Jainism.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

HinduismEdit

Ancient Vedic textsEdit

Template:Transliteration as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts.<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The oldest scriptures indirectly mention Template:Transliteration. Over time, the Hindu scripts revised ritual practices, and the concept of Template:Transliteration was increasingly refined and emphasized until Template:Transliteration became the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about Template:BCE). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words Template:Transliteration (truthfulness) and Template:Transliteration in a prayer to deity Indra;<ref>Template:Multiref2</ref> later, the Yajur Veda dated to be between Template:BCE and Template:BCE, states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>Template:Multiref2</ref>Template:Sfn Template:Page needed Template:Sfn Template:Page needed

The term Template:Transliteration appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself.Template:Sfn It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of "non-injury".<ref>Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39.</ref> The Template:Transliteration doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture.<ref name="houben 1999">Template:Cite book</ref> The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals (Template:Transliteration), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about Template:BCE.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Page needed Template:Sfn Template:Page needed The Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.4) includes ahimsa in its list of virtues.<ref name="VD">Template:Cite book</ref>

John Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Kaneda gives examples of the word Template:Transliteration in these Upanishads.<ref name=kaneda2008>Template:Cite book</ref> Other scholars<ref name="arapura"/><ref name=Izawa /> suggest Template:Transliteration as an ethical concept started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.

The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to Template:BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the Vedic era use of the word Template:Transliteration in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (Template:Transliteration), and the practitioner of Template:Transliteration is said to escape from the cycle of rebirths (CU 8.15.1).Template:Sfn<ref>English translation: Template:Harvnb</ref> Some scholars state that this mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn

Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Template:Transliteration, along with Template:Transliteration (truthfulness), Template:Transliteration (sincerity), Template:Transliteration (charity), and Template:Transliteration (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).<ref name=arapura/><ref>Ravindra Kumar (2008), Non-violence and Its Philosophy, Template:ISBN, see pages 11–14</ref>

The Sandilya Upanishad lists ten forbearances: Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, and Template:Transliteration.<ref>Template:Multiref2</ref> According to Kaneda,<ref name=kaneda2008/> the term Template:Transliteration is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'. It implies the total avoidance of harming any living creature by deeds, words, and thoughts.

The EpicsEdit

Template:See also

The Mahabharata, one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, Anushasana Parva has the verse:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

<poem>{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} </poem>

The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of Template:Transliteration in Hinduism, and literally means:

<poem>
Template:Transliteration is the highest Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration is the highest self-control, Template:Transliteration is the greatest gift, Template:Transliteration is the best practice, Template:Transliteration is the highest sacrifice, Template:Transliteration is the finest strength, Template:Transliteration is the greatest friend, Template:Transliteration is the greatest happiness, Template:Transliteration is the highest truth, and Template:Transliteration is the greatest teaching.<ref name=CCEN>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
</poem>

Some other examples where the phrase Template:Transliteration are discussed include Adi Parva, Vana Parva, and Anushasana Parva. The Bhagavad Gita, among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the theories of just war. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about non-violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.<ref name=fischer1954>Template:Cite book</ref>

Self-defence, criminal law, and warEdit

The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters to discussing what people who practice the virtue of Template:Transliteration can and must do when faced with war, violent threat, or the need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, ideas of reasonable self-defense, and views of proportionate punishment.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=klos1996>Template:Cite book</ref> Arthashastra discusses, among other things, what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.<ref name=robinson2003>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

War

The precepts of Template:Transliteration in Hinduism require that war must be avoided, withTemplate:Ambiguous sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, and its method lawful.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=robinson2003/> War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not to cause misery to the opponent; for example, the use of arrows is allowed, but the use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgmentTemplate:Specify in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed; they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment.<ref name=robinson2003/> Children, women, and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=klos1996/>

Self-defence

Different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered in matters of self-defense. For example, Tähtinen suggests self-defense is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of Template:Transliteration, and Hindu scriptures support violence against an armed attacker.Template:Sfn<ref>Mahabharata 12.15.55; Manu Smriti 8.349–350; Matsya Purana 226.116.</ref> Template:Transliteration is not meant to imply pacifism.Template:Sfn

Alternative theories of self-defense, inspired by Template:Transliteration, build principles similar to ideas of just war. Aikido, pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such set of principles for self-defense. Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> According to this interpretation of Template:Transliteration in self-defense, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some people will, out of ignorance, error, or fear, attack others or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of self-defense, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralize the attacker's aggression and avoid conflict. The best defense is one with which the victim is protected and the attacker is respected and not injured if possible. Under Template:Transliteration and Aikido, there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defense focuses on neutralizing the immaturity, assumptions, and aggressive strivings of the attacker.<ref>Template:Multiref2</ref>

Criminal law

Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about the death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed and that a king, in particular, is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his brothers and sons.Template:Sfn

Other scholars<ref name=klos1996/><ref name=robinson2003/> conclude that Hindu scriptures suggest that sentences for any crime must be fair, proportional, and not cruel.

Non-human lifeEdit

File:ValluvarStatue SanctuaryAtTiruvallur.jpg

The 5th-century CE Tamil scholar Valluvar, in his Tirukkural, taught Template:Transliteration and moral vegetarianism as personal virtues. The plaque in this statue of Valluvar at an animal sanctuary at Tiruvallur describes the Kural's teachings on Template:Transliteration and non-killing, summing them up with the definition of veganism.

The Hindu precept of "cause no injury" applies to animals and all life forms. This precept is not found in the oldest verses of Vedas (Template:BCE), but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas in post-Vedic period.<ref name=chapple16>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn In the oldest layer of the Vedas, such as the Rigveda, ritual sacrifices of animals and cooking of meat to feed guests are mentioned. This included goat, ox, horse, and others.Template:Sfn However, the text is not uniform in its prescriptions. Some verses praise meat as food, while other verses in the Vedas recommend "abstention from meat", in particular, "beef".Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Marvin Harris, the Vedic literature is inconsistent, with some verses suggesting ritual slaughter and meat consumption, while others suggesting a taboo on meat-eating.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Hindu texts dated to Template:BCE initially mention meat as food, then evolve to suggest that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, thereafter evolving to the stance that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots, and fruits alone.<ref name=chapple16/><ref>Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2.4.7; 2.6.2; 2.11.15; 2.12.8; 3.1.13; 3.3.6; Apastamba Dharmasutra 1.17.15; 1.17.19; 2.17.26–2.18.3; Vasistha Dharmasutra 14.12.</ref> The late Vedic-era literature (Template:BCE) condemns all killings of men, cattle, birds, and horses, and prays to god Agni to punish those who kill.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Later texts of Hinduism declare Template:Transliteration as one of the primary virtues, declare any killing or harming any life as against Template:Transliteration (moral life). Finally, the discussion in the Upanishads and Hindu Epics<ref>Manu Smriti 5.30, 5.32, 5.39 and 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207), 3.199.5 (3.207.5), 3.199.19–29 (3.207.19), 3.199.23–24 (3.207.23–24), 13.116.15–18, 14.28; Ramayana 1-2-8:19</ref> shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way, which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with Template:Transliteration, given the constraints of life and human needs.<ref>Alsdorf pp. 592–593; Mahabharata 13.115.59–60, 13.116.15–18.</ref> The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent. Sushruta Samhita, a Hindu text written in Template:BCE, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Sutrasthana 46.89; Sharirasthana 3.25.</ref> and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.<ref>Sutrasthana 27.87.</ref>

Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of Template:Transliteration when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus.<ref>Mahabharata 3.199.11–12 (3.199 is 3.207 elsewhere); 13.115; 13.116.26; 13.148.17; Bhagavata Purana (11.5.13–14), and the Chandogya Upanishad (8.15.1).</ref> Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of Template:Transliteration.<ref>Alsdorf pp. 572–577 (for the Manusmṛti) and pp. 585–597 (for the Mahabharata); Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>The Mahabharata and the Manusmṛti (5.27–55) contain lengthy discussions about the legitimacy of ritual slaughter.</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; 13.115–116; 14.28.</ref> In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.Template:Sfn<ref>Alsdorf p. 589–590</ref>Template:Sfn

The ancient Hindu texts discuss Template:Transliteration and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits (sannyasins) were urged to live on a fruitarian diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants.Template:Sfn<ref>Manusmriti 10.63, 11.145</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> ScholarsTemplate:R<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> claim the principles of ecological nonviolence are innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been Template:Transliteration as its cardinal virtue.

The classical literature of the Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Jainism, exists in many Indian languages. For example, the Tirukkural, written in three volumes, likely between Template:CE, dedicates verses 251–260 and 321–333 of its first volume to the virtue of Template:Transliteration, emphasizing on moral vegetarianism and non-killing (Template:Transliteration).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, the Tirukkural also glorifies soldiers and their valour during war, and states that it is king's duty to punish criminals and implement "death sentence for the wicked".<ref name=Ananthanathan315>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1960, H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of Template:Transliteration.<ref name=AVS50>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Stepaniak 2000, 6–7; Preece 2008, 323.</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Modern timesEdit

File:Portrait Gandhi.jpg

Gandhi promoted the principle of Template:Transliteration by applying it to politics.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Shrimad Rajchandra<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and Swami Vivekananda<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> emphasised the importance of Ahimsa.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi successfully promoted the principle of Template:Transliteration to all spheres of life, in particular to politics (Template:Transliteration).Template:Sfn His non-violent resistance movement Template:Transliteration had an immense impact on India, impressed public opinion in Western countries, and influenced the leaders of various civil and political rights movements such as the American civil rights movement's Martin Luther King Jr. and James Bevel. In Gandhi's thought, Template:Transliteration precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred, and unkind behavior such as harsh words, dishonesty, and lying, all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with Template:Transliteration.<ref name="XXII-XLVII 1986, p. 11-12">Template:Harvnb; Template:Cite book</ref> Gandhi believed Template:Transliteration to be a creative energy force, encompassing all interactions leading one's self to find Template:Transliteration, "Divine Truth".<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Sri Aurobindo criticized the Gandhian concept of Template:Transliteration as unrealistic and not universally applicable; he adopted a pragmatic non-pacifist position, saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation.Template:Sfn

Gandhi took the religious principle of ahimsa, and turned it into a non-violent tool for mass action. He used it to fight not only colonial rule, but social evils such as racial discrimination and untouchability as well.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Gandhi stated his belief that "Template:Transliteration is in Hinduism, it is in Christianity as well as in Islam."<ref name=par/> He added, "Nonviolence is common to all religions, but it has found the highest expression and application in Hinduism (I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism)."<ref name=par/> When questioned whether violence and nonviolence are taught in Quran, he stated, "I have heard from many Muslim friends that the Koran teaches the use of nonviolence. (... The) argument about nonviolence in the Holy Koran is an interpolation, not necessary for my thesis."<ref name=par>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=mgarat>Template:Multiref2</ref>

Studying Template:Transliteration's history and philosophy influenced Albert Schweitzer's principle of "reverence for life". He commended Indian traditions for their ethics of Template:Transliteration, considering the prohibition against killing and harming "one of the greatest events in the spiritual history of humankind". However, he noted that "not-killing" and "not-harming" might be unfeasible in certain situations, like self-defense, or ethically complex, as in cases of prolonged famine.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

YogaEdit

Template:Transliteration means "abstinence from malice towards all living creatures in every way and at all times".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Ahimsa is imperative for practitioners of Patañjali's eight limb Raja yoga system. It is included in the first limb and is the first of five Template:Transliteration (self restraints) which, together with the second limb, make up the code of ethical conduct in Yoga philosophy.<ref name="pyogas3t">Sanskrit Original with Translation 1: Template:Cite book

Translation 2: Template:Cite book
Translation 3: Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Commentators on the Yoga Sutras II.30 emphasize that ahimsa is the most important and foundational yama of the five yamas. Vijnanabhiksu uses the analogy of an elephant to convey its importance, while Vyasa defines it as refraining from harming any living being at any time, emphasizing that all other yamas support and purify ahimsa.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Template:Transliteration is also one of the ten Template:Transliteration in Hatha Yoga according to verse 1.1.17 of its classic manual Hatha Yoga Pradipika.<ref>Sanskrit: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
English Translation: Template:Cite book</ref> The significance of Template:Transliteration as the first restraint in the first limb of Yoga (Template:Transliteration) is that it defines the necessary foundation for progress through Yoga. It is a precursor to Template:Transliteration, implying that success in Template:Transliteration can be had only if the self is purified in thought, word, and deed through the self-restraint of Template:Transliteration.

JainismEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Template:See also

File:Ahimsa Jainism Gradient.jpg

The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolises the Jain Vow of Template:Transliteration. The word in the middle is Template:Transliteration. The wheel represents the dharmacakra which stands for the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth and non-violence.

In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of Template:Transliteration is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion.Template:Sfnm Killing any living being out of passions like attachment is considered Template:Transliteration (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is Template:Transliteration (noninjury).Template:Sfn The vow of Template:Transliteration is considered the foremost among the "five vows of Jainism". Other vows like truth (Template:Transliteration) are meant for safeguarding the vow of Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn

In the practice of Template:Transliteration, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons (Template:Transliteration) who have undertaken Template:Transliteration (Smaller Vows) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata "Great Vows".Template:Sfnm<ref>Religious Vegetarianism, ed. Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 43–46 (translation of the First Great Vow).</ref>

The statement Template:IAST (or, "Non-injury/nonviolence/harmlessness is the supreme/ultimate/paramount/highest/absolute duty/virtue/attribute/religion"Template:Refn) is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples.Template:Sfnm As in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma.Template:Sfn

When Mahavira revived and reorganised the Jain faith in Template:BCE,<ref>Template:Harvnb suggests the 5th century; the traditional dating of Mahavira's death is Template:BCE.</ref> Template:Transliteration was already an established, strictly observed rule.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Rishabhanatha (Ādinātha), the first Jain Tirthankara, whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure, followed by Parshvanatha (Pārśvanātha)Template:Sfnm the twenty-third Tirthankara lived in about Template:BCE.<ref>Template:Harvnb suggests the 8th or 7th century; the traditional chronology places him in the late 9th or early 8th century.</ref> He founded the community to which Mahavira's parents belonged.<ref>Acaranga Sutra 2.15.</ref> Ahimsa was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" (Caujjama), the vows taken by Parshva's followers.<ref>Sthananga Sutra 266; Template:Harvnb; Goyal p. 83–84, 103.</ref> In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfnm<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is prescribed.Template:Sfn

The Jain concept of Template:Transliteration is characterised by several aspects. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out.Template:Sfnm Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn Jain monks and nuns go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals.Template:Sfnm Both the renouncers and the laypeople of Jain faith reject meat, fish, alcohol, and honey as these are believed to harm large or minuscule life forms.Template:Sfn

Jain scholars have debated the potential injury to other life forms during one's occupation. Certain Jain texts (according to Padmanabh Jaini, a Jainism scholar) forbid people of its faith from husbandry, agriculture, and trade in animal-derived products.<ref name="Sethia2004p51"/> Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects.Template:Sfn These teachings, in part, have led the Jain community to focus on trade, merchant, clerical, and administrative occupations to minimize Template:Transliteration (occupational violence against all life forms).<ref name="Sethia2004p51">Template:Cite book</ref> For the layperson, the teaching has been of Template:Transliteration with Template:Transliteration – that is, reducing violence through proper intention and being careful in every action on a daily basis to minimize violence to all life forms.Template:Sfn

The Jain texts, unlike most Hindu and Buddhist texts on just war, have been inconsistent. For its monastic community – Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration – the historically accepted practice has been to "willingly sacrifice one's own life" to the attacker, to not retaliate, so that the mendicant may keep the First Great Vow of "total nonviolence".<ref name="Sethia2004p51"/> Jain literature of Template:CE, for example, describes a king ready for war and being given lessons about non-violence by the Jain acharya (spiritual teacher).Template:Sfn In Template:CE and thereafter, in an era of violent raids, destruction of temples, the slaughter of agrarian communities and ascetics by Islamic armies, Jain scholars reconsidered the First Great Vow of mendicants and its parallel for the laypeople. The medieval texts of this era, such as by Jinadatta Suri, recommended both the mendicants and the laypeople to fight and kill if that would prevent greater and continued violence on humans and other life forms (Template:Transliteration).Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Such exemptions to Template:Transliteration is a relatively rare teaching in Jain texts, states Dundas.Template:Sfn

Mahatma Gandhi stated, "No religion in the World has explained the principle of Template:Transliteration so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of Template:Transliteration or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Template:Transliteration".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

BuddhismEdit

File:Spirit Peace Walk 03.jpg

Buddhist monk peace walk

Template:Further In Buddhist texts Template:Transliteration (or its Pāli cognate Template:Transliteration) is part of the Five Precepts (Template:IAST), the first of which has been to abstain from killing. This precept of Template:Transliteration is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monastic community.<ref name="Williams2005p398">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Multiref2</ref>Template:Sfnm

The Template:Transliteration precept is not a commandment, and transgressions did not Template:Clarify for laypersons, but theirTemplate:Ambiguous power has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in afterlife during rebirth.Template:Sfn Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk.Template:Sfn Saving animals from slaughter for meat is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth.Template:Sfn Buddhist texts not only recommend Template:Transliteration, but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence:

These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower: trading with weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading in intoxicants, trading in poisons. {{#if:Anguttara Nikaya V.177Translated by Martine Batchelor<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>|{{#if:|}}

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Unlike with lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions.Template:Sfn Full expulsion of a monk from Template:Transliteration follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic Template:Transliteration code of conduct.Template:Sfn

WarEdit

Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war were not explicitly condemned in Buddhism,<ref>Sarao p. 53; Template:Harvnb</ref> but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior.Template:Sfn

Nonviolence is an overarching theme within the Pāli Canon.Template:Sfn While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal ruler as a pacifist, such a ruler is nonetheless flanked by an army.Template:Sfn It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military service way by early Buddhists.Template:Sfn The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled soldiers are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare.Template:Sfn In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the Template:Transliteration; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.Template:Sfn

The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such.Template:Sfn Some argue that a Template:Transliteration in the Gamani Samyuttam rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth.<ref>Template:Harvnb. Full texts of the sutta: {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}.</ref> In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war.<ref>Template:Harvnb. Some examples are the Cakkavati Sihanada Sutta, the Kosala Samyutta, the Ratthapala Sutta, and the Sinha Sutta. See also page 125. See also Trevor Ling, Buddhism, Imperialism, and War. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1979, pages 136–137.</ref> One example is the Kosala Samyutta, in which King Pasenadi of Kosala, a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defence, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated Emperor Ajātasattu and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of Magadha has transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajātasattu was still his nephew. He released Ajātasattu and did not harm him.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Upon his return, the Buddha said (among other things) that Pasenadi "is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue", while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajātasattu.Template:Sfn

According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death.<ref>Template:Cite book, see also Template:Harvnb.</ref> Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated, and its ethicality is predicated upon intent.Template:Sfn Some have argued that in defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to defend against aggression, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions.Template:Sfn

According to Babasaheb Ambedkar, there is circumstantial evidence encouraging Template:Transliteration from the Buddha's doctrine, "Love all, so that you may not wish to kill any." Gautama Buddha distinguished between a principle and a rule. He did not make Template:Transliteration a matter of rule, but suggested it as a matter of principle. This gives Buddhists freedom to act.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

LawsEdit

Maurya Emperor Ashoka banned animal sacrifice, hunting, slaughter of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible" and specific animal species, female goats, sheep and pigs nursing their young as well as their young up to the age of six months. Fishing was banned during Chaturmasya and Uposatha.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book.</ref> Slave trade in the Maurya Empire was also banned by Ashoka.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The emperors of the Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, and early Song dynasty banned killing in the Lunar calendar's 1st, 5th, and 9th months.<ref>Template:Multiref2</ref> Empress Wu Tse-Tien banned killing for more than half a year in 692.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Some rulers banned fishing for a period of time each year.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

There were also bans after the death of emperors,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> after Buddhist and Taoist prayers,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and after natural disasters such as Shanghai's 1926 summer drought, as well as an eight-day ban beginning August 12, 1959, after the August 7 flood (Template:Lang-zh), the last big flood before the 88 Taiwan Flood.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

People avoid killing during some festivals, like the Taoist Ghost Festival, the Nine Emperor Gods Festival, and the Vegetarian Festival, as well as during others.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} Template:Dead link</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>