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Al-Azhar University

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Template:Short description Template:For-multi {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other{{#if:|Template:Main other }}{{#if:|Template:Main other }}{{#if:|Template:Main other }}{{#invoke:check for unknown parameters|check |unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Infobox university with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y | academic_affiliation | academic_affiliations | academic_staff | accreditation | address | administrative_staff | affiliation | affiliations | athletics_affiliations | athletics_nickname | athletics_nicknames | budget | campus | campus_type | campus_size | canton | caption | chair | chairman | chairperson | chancellor | city | closed | colors | colours | coor | coordinates | country | dean | director | doctoral | embedded | endowment | enrollment | established | faculty | footnotes | former_name | former_names | founder | founders | free | free1 | free2 | free_label | free_label1 | free_label2 | head | head_label | image | image_alt | image_name | image_size | image_upright | language | latin_name | location | logo | logo_alt | logo_size | logo_upright | map_size | mascot | mascots | module | motto | mottoeng | motto_lang | mottoeng | name | native_name | native_name_lang | nickname | nrhp | officer_in_charge | other | other_name | other_names | other_students | parent | postalcode | postcode | postgrad | prefecture | president | principal | province | provost | pushpin_label_position | pushpin_map | pushpin_map_caption | rector | region | religious_affiliation | sporting_affiliations | sports_free | sports_free1 | sports_free2 | sports_free3 | sports_free_label | sports_free_label1 | sports_free_label2 | sports_free_label3 | sports_nickname | sports_nicknames | state | students | superintendent | top_free | top_free1 | top_free2 | top_free_label | top_free_label1 | top_free_label2 | total_staff | type | undergrad | vice_chancellor | vice-president | vice_president | visitor | website | zipcode }}{{#invoke:Check for clobbered parameters|check | template = Infobox university | cat = Template:Main other | image; image_name | other_names; other_name | former_names; former_name | founders; founder | academic_affiliations; academic_affiliation | academic_staff; faculty | campus_type; campus | other_students; other | location; address | location; city | location; address | location; canton | location; prefecture | location; province | location; region | location; state | location; country | location; postalcode | location; postcode | location; zipcode | postalcode; postcode; zipcode | coordinates; coor | colors; colours | free_label; free_label1 | free; free1 | athletics_nicknames; sports_nicknames; athletics_nickname; sports_nickname; nickname | athletics_affiliations; sporting_affiliations | affiliation; affiliations | mascots; mascot | nrhp; embedded; module }} Template:Infobox university rankings

The Al-Azhar University (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell; Template:Langx, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, Template:Lit) is a public university in Cairo, Egypt. Associated with Al-Azhar Al-Sharif in Islamic Cairo, it is Egypt's oldest degree-granting university and is known as one of the most prestigious universities for Islamic learning.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In addition to higher education, Al-Azhar oversees a national network of schools with approximately two million students.<ref name=PRAA-4>Template:Cite book</ref> Template:As of over 4,000 teaching institutes in Egypt were affiliated with the university.<ref name=Roy2004-92>Template:Cite book</ref>

Founded in 970 or 972 by the Fatimid Caliphate as a centre of Islamic learning, its students studied the Qur'an and Islamic law, along with logic, grammar, rhetoric, and how to calculate the phases of the moon. Today it is the chief centre of Arabic literature and Islamic learning in the world.<ref name="Britannica Article">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 1961 additional non-religious subjects were added to its curriculum.<ref name="Encyclopaedia of Islam: al-Azhar, modern period" />

Its library is considered second in importance in Egypt only to the Egyptian National Library and Archives.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In May 2005, Al-Azhar in partnership with a Dubai information technology enterprise, IT Education Project (ITEP) launched the H.H. Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum project to preserve Al-Azhar scripts and publish them online (the "Al-Azhar Online Project") to eventually publish online access to the library's entire rare manuscripts collection, comprising about seven million pages of material.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>ITEP press release, 10 October 2006</ref>

HistoryEdit

Beginnings under the FatimidsEdit

File:Courtyard of Al-Azhar Mosque Cairo Egypt 2019 (6).jpg
The courtyard of the Al-Azhar Mosque, which largely dates to the Fatimid period

Al-Azhar is one of the relics of the Isma'ili Shi'a Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descent from Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad and wife of Ali, son-in-law, and cousin of Muhammad. Fatimah was called al-Zahra (the luminous), and the institution was named in her honor.<ref>Halm, Heinz. The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning. London: The Institute of Ismaili Studies and I.B. Tauris. 1997.</ref> It was founded as a mosque by the Fatimid commander Jawhar al-Siqilli at the orders of the Caliph and Imam Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah as he founded the city for Cairo. It was begun (probably on Saturday) in Jumada al-Awwal in the year AH 359 (March/April 970 CE). Its building was completed on the 9th of Ramadan in AH 361 (24 June 972 CE). Both Caliph al-Aziz Billah and Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah added to its premises. It was further repaired, renovated, and extended by al-Mustansir Billah and al-Hafiz li-Din Allah.<ref name="imamreza.net"/>

File:Flickr - Gaspa - Cairo, moschea di El-Azhar (5).jpg
Prayer hall of Al-Azhar Mosque

The Fatimid caliphs always encouraged scholars and jurists to have their study-circles and gatherings in this mosque and thus it was turned into a madrasa which has the claim to be considered as the oldest such institution still functioning.<ref name="imamreza.net">Shorter Shi'ite Encyclopaedia, By: Hasan al-Amin, http://www.imamreza.net/old/eng/imamreza.php?id=574</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The mosque provided teaching on a variety of subjects from a variety of scholars.<ref name="Edinburgh University Press">Template:Cite book</ref> According to Syed Farid Alatas, these subjects included Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, Islamic philosophy, and logic.<ref name="Alatas">Template:Cite journal</ref> Under the Fatimids, Al-Azhar also notably promoted Shia Islam.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

SaladinEdit

In the 12th century, following the overthrow of the Isma'ili Fatimid dynasty, Saladin (the founder of the Sunni Ayyubid dynasty) converted Al-Azhar to a Shafi'ite Sunni center of learning.<ref name="Britannica Article" /><ref>Encyclopædia Britannica p.37 1993 edition Template:ISBN</ref> Therefore, "he had all the treasures of the palace, including the books, sold over a period of ten years. Many were burned, thrown into the Nile, or thrown into a great heap, which was covered with sand, so that a regular "hill of books" was formed and the soldiers used to sole their shoes with the fine bindings. The number of books said to have been disposed of varies from 120,000 to 2,000,000."<ref>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden, 1936, 3rd vol., p. 353</ref><ref>[1], End of the Fatimid Caliphate</ref> Abd-el-latif delivered lectures on Islamic medicine at Al-Azhar, while according to legend the Jewish philosopher Maimonides delivered lectures on medicine and astronomy there during the time of Saladin though no historical proof has corroborated this.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Saladin introduced the college system in Egypt, which was also adopted in Al-Azhar. Under this system, the college was a separate institution within the mosque compound, with its own classrooms, dormitories and a library.<ref name=dictionary>Template:Cite book</ref>

MamluksEdit

Under the Mamluks, Al-Azhar gained influence and rose in prestige.<ref name=founding/> The Mamluks established salaries for instructors and stipends for the students and gave the institution an endowment.<ref name=dictionary/> A college was built for the institution in 1340, outside of the mosque. In the late 1400s, the buildings were renovated and new dormitories were built for the students.<ref name=dictionary/>

During this time Cairo had 70 other institutions of Islamic learning, however, Al-Azhar attracted many scholars due to its prestige. The famed Ibn Khaldun taught at Al-Azhar starting in 1383.<ref name=founding>Template:Cite book</ref>

During this time texts were few and much of the learning happened by students memorizing their teachers' lectures and notes. In fact, blind young boys were enrolled at Al-Azhar in the hopes that they could eventually earn a living as teachers.<ref name=dictionary/>

OttomansEdit

File:Cairo, moschea di al-azhar, 01.JPG
The Gate of the Barbers, one of the entrances to the mosque embellished during the Ottoman period

During the Ottoman period, Al-Azhar's prestige and influence grew to the point of becoming the preeminent institution for Islamic learning in the Sunni Muslim world.<ref name=founding/> During this time, the Shaykh Al-Azhar was established, an office given to the leading scholar at the institution; prior to this the head of the institution was not necessarily a scholar.Template:Sfn In 1748, the Ottoman pasha tried to get Al-Azhar to teach astronomy and mathematics, to little avail.<ref name=dictionary/>

During the time there wasn't a system of academic degrees, instead the shaykh (professor) determined if the student was sufficiently trained to enter a professor (ijazah). The average length of study was 6 years. Despite the lack of bureaucracy, the training remained rigorous and prolonged.<ref name=dictionary/> Students were loosely organized into riwaq (a sort of fraternity) organized according to their nationality and branch of Islamic law they studied. Each riwaq was supervised by a professor. A rector, usually a senior professor, oversaw the finances.<ref name=dictionary/>

Post-OttomanEdit

By the mid 19th century, al-Azhar had surpassed Istanbul and was considered the capital of Sunni legal expertise;<ref>Oliver Leaman, ABDU, MUHAMMAD, The Quran: an Encyclopedia Routledge</ref> a main centre of power in the Islamic world; and a rival to Damascus, Mecca and Baghdad.

When the Kingdom of Egypt was established in 1923, the signing of the new nation's constitution was delayed because of King Fuad I's insistence that Al-Azhar and other religious institutions were to be subject to him and not the Egyptian parliament.<ref>The Times, Egyptian Constitution Delay. 19 April 1923</ref> The King Fuad I Edition of the Qur'an<ref>Brill, "[ <http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_intro> Supplement II - Qurʾān Concordance]", in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC. Consulted online on 10 July 2020</ref> was first published on 10 July 1924 by a committee from Al-Azhar University<ref name=SW>Stefan Wild, "basmallah" The Quran: an Encyclopedia, Routledge</ref> Prominent committee members included Islamic scholar, Muhammad b. 'Ali al-Husayni al-Haddad. Noteworthy Western scholars/academics working in Egypt at the time include Bergsträsser and Jeffery. Methodological differences aside, speculation alludes to a spirit of cooperation. Bergsträsser was certainly impressed with the work.<ref>Reynolds, "Quranic studies and its controversies", 2008</ref>

In March 1924, Abdülmecid II had been deposed as Caliph, nominally the supreme religious and political leader of all Sunni Muslims across the world.Template:Sfn The Grand Sheikh of al-Azhar repudiated the abolition<ref>The Times, The Caliphate, 18 March 1924</ref> and was part of a call from Al-Azhar for an Islamic Conference. The unsuccessful "caliphate conference" was held under the presidency of the Grand Chancellor of Azhar in 1926Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn but no one was able to gain a consensus for the candidacy across the Islamic world. Candidates proposed for the caliphate included King Fuad.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

ModernizationEdit

File:Al-Ahmadi Azhar Institute -Tanta - Egypt.JPG
An Azhari institute in Tanta

The pioneering Pakistani journalist Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah became the first woman to address the university in 1955. In 1961, Al-Azhar was re-established as a university under the government of Egypt's second President Gamal Abdel Nasser when a wide range of secular faculties were added for the first time, such as business, economics, science, pharmacy, medicine, engineering and agriculture. Before that date, the Encyclopaedia of Islam classifies the Al-Azhar variously as madrasa, center of higher learning and, since the 19th century, religious university, but not as a university in the full sense, referring to the modern transition process as "from madrasa to university".<ref name="Encyclopaedia of Islam: al-Azhar, modern period">Skovgaard-Petersen, Jakob. "al-Azhar, modern period." Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Edited by: Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas and Everett Rowson. Brill, 2010, retrieved 20/03/2010: <templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />

Al-Azhar, the historic centre of higher Islamic learning in Cairo, has undergone significant change since the late 19th century, with new regulations and reforms resulting in an expanded role for the university. 1. From madrasa to university{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Blockquote with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | author | by | char | character | cite | class | content | multiline | personquoted | publication | quote | quotesource | quotetext | sign | source | style | text | title | ts }}</ref><ref>Jomier, J. "al- Azhar (al-Ḏj̲āmiʿ al-Azhar)." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010, retrieved 20/03/2010: <templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />

This great mosque, the 'brilliant one' ... is one of the principal mosques of present-day Cairo. This seat of learning ... regained all its activity—Sunnī from now on—during the reign of Sultan Baybars. ... Al-Azhar at the beginning of the 19th century could well have been called a religious university; what it was not was a complete university giving instruction in those modern disciplines essential to the awakening of the country.{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Blockquote with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | author | by | char | character | cite | class | content | multiline | personquoted | publication | quote | quotesource | quotetext | sign | source | style | text | title | ts }}</ref> Other academic sources also refer to al-Azhar as a madrasa in pre-modern times before its transformation into a university.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> An Islamic women's faculty was also added in the same year.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Religious ideologyEdit

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File:Madrasa aqbughawiyya 05.jpg
One of the study halls attached to the mosque

Historically, Al-Azhar had a membership that represented diverse opinions within Islam. The theological schools of al-Ash'ari and al-Maturidi were both represented. It has a long tradition of teaching all four schools of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi, and Hanbali). The chief mufti of each school of thought acted as the dean, responsible for the teachers and students in that group.<ref name=petersen/> During the time of the Ottomans, the Hanafi dean came to hold a position as primus inter pares.<ref name=petersen>Template:Cite book</ref> It also had membership from the seven main Sufi orders.<ref>Jadaliyya: "The Identity of Al-Azhar and Its Doctrine" by Ibrahim El-Houdaiby July 29, 2012</ref> Al-Azhar has had an antagonistic relationship with Wahhabism.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to a 2011 report issued by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Al Azhar is strongly Sufi in character:

Adherence to a Sufi order has long been standard for both professors and students in the al-Azhar mosque and university system. Although al-Azhar is not monolithic, its identity has been strongly associated with Sufism. The current Shaykh al-Azhar (rector of the school), Ahmed el-Tayeb, is a hereditary Sufi shaykh from Upper Egypt who has recently expressed his support for the formation of a world Sufi league; the former Grand Mufti of Egypt and senior al-Azhar scholar Ali Gomaa is also a highly respected Sufi master.<ref name=CarnegirEndowment>Carnegie Endowment for International Peace" "Salafis and Sufis in Egypt" by Jonathon Brown December 2011, p 12</ref>

However, in the early 20th century, enlightened Modernist thinkers such as Muhammad Abduh led a reform of the curriculum, reintroducing a desire for legal reform through ijtihad.<ref>Jung, Dietrich. "Islamic Reform and the Global Public Sphere." The Middle East and Globalization. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2012. 153-169.</ref><ref>Gauvain, Richard. "SalafiSm in modern egypt: panacea or peSt?." Political Theology 11.6 (2010): 802-825.</ref> Subsequently, disputes were had between modernist intellectuals and traditionalists within al-Azhar.<ref>Hatina, Meir. "Historical legacy and the challenge of modernity in the Middle East: the case of Al-Azhar in Egypt." The Muslim World 93.1 (2003): 51.</ref> Al-Azhar now maintains a modernist position, advocating "Wasatiyya" (centrism), a reaction against the extreme textualism of many Wahhabi Salafi ideologues. Wasatiyya covers a range of thinkers, some of whom are liberal intellectuals with religious inclinations, preachers such as Yusuf al-Qaradawi and many members of the Muslim Brotherhood. Since the 2013 coup however, Al-Azhar has taken a position against the brotherhood.<ref>Brown, Nathan J. Post-revolutionary al-Azhar. Vol. 3. New York, NY: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2011.</ref>

The nineteenth and current Grand Mufti of Egypt and Al Azhar scholar, is Shawki Ibrahim Abdel-Karim Allam. The university is opposed to overt liberal reform of Islam and issued a fatwa against the liberal Ibn Rushd-Goethe mosque in Berlin because it banned face-covering veils such as burqa and niqab on its premises while allowing women and men to pray together. The fatwa encompassed all present and future liberal mosques.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Council of Senior ScholarsEdit

File:جامعة الأزهر بالقاهرة.jpg
Al-Azhar University Campus

Al-Azhar University's Council of Senior Scholars was founded in 1911 but was replaced in 1961 by the Center for Islamic Research. In July 2012, after the law restricting Al-Azhar University's autonomy was modified by the incoming president Mohamed Morsi, the council was reformed.<ref name="AlArabiyaSeniorScholars">Hani Nasira and Saeid al-Sonny, Al Aribiya: "Senior scholars and the new Egyptian constitution", Al Arabiya, January 10, 2013</ref> The Council consists of 40 members and as of February 2013 had 14 vacancies<ref name="ForeignPolicyMufti">Nathan J. Brown, "Egypt's new mufti" Template:Webarchive, Foreign Policy, February 12, 2013</ref> all appointed by the current imam of Al-Azhar, Ahmed El-Tayeb,<ref name="NYTGoodbyePope">Issandr El Amrani, "Goodbye Pope, Hello Mufti", New York Times, February 13, 2013</ref> who was appointed by the prior president, Hosni Mubarak. Once the remaining 14 vacancies are filled, new vacancies will be appointed by the existing Council itself.<ref name="ForeignPolicyMufti" /> All four madhahib (schools) of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence are proportionally represented on the council (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Hanbali, Maliki) and voting is on a majority basis.<ref name="AlArabiyaSeniorScholars" /> In addition to El-Tayeb, other prominent members of the Council include the outgoing Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa.<ref>"Egypt's new Grand Mufti elected for first time ever", Ahram Online, February 11, 2013</ref> The council is tasked with nominating the Grand Mufti of Egypt (subject to presidential approval), electing the next Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Mosque, and is expected to be the final authority in determining if new legislation is compliant with Islamic law.<ref name="AlArabiyaSeniorScholars" /> Although the council's decisions are not binding (absent new legislation), it is expected that it would be difficult for the parliament to pass legislation deemed by the council as against Islamic law.<ref name="AlArabiyaSeniorScholars" />

In January 2013, Al-Tayeb referred a relatively minor issue related to Islamic bonds to the council, for the first time asserting the council's jurisdiction.<ref name=AlArabiyaSeniorScholars /> In 2013, the Council elected Shawki Ibrahim Abdel-Karim Allam to be the next Grand Mufti of Egypt. This marks the first time that the Grand Mufti would be elected by Islamic scholars since the position was created in 1895. Prior to this, the Egyptian head of state made the appointment.<ref name=NYTGoodbyePope />

ViewsEdit

Al-Azhar's muftis have a history of being consulted on political issues. Muhammad Ali Pasha appointed Al-Azhar muftis to the Consultative Council in 1829 and this would be repeated by Abbas I and later Isma'il Pasha. At the same time, there were many cases where the Egyptian ruler would disregard the opinion of Al-Azhar scholars.<ref name=petersen/> Sheikh Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy noted that among the priorities of Muslims are "to master all knowledge of the world and the hereafter, not least the technology of modern weapons to strengthen and defend the community and faith". He added that "mastery over modern weaponry is important to prepare for any eventuality or prejudices of the others, although Islam is a religion of peace".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Sheikh Tantawy also reasserted that his is the best faith to follow and that Muslims have the duty of active da'wa. He has made declarations about Muslims interacting with non-Muslims who are not a threat to Muslims. There are non-Muslims living apart from Muslims and who are not enemies of Islam ("Muslims are allowed to undertake exchanges of interests with these non-Muslims so long as these ties do not tarnish the image of the faith"), and there are "the non-Muslims who live in the same country as the Muslims in cooperation and on friendly terms, and are not enemies of the faith" ("in this case, their rights and responsibilities are the same as the Muslims so long as they do not become enemies of Islam"). Shi'a fiqh (according to a fatwa by Al-Azhar)<ref>al-Azhar Verdict on the Shia – Shi'ite Encyclopedia v2.0, Al-islam</ref> is accepted as a fifth school of Islamic thought.

In October 2007, Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, then the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar, drew allegations of stifling freedom of speech when he asked the Egyptian government to toughen its rules and punishments against journalists. During a Friday sermon in the presence of Egyptian Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif and a number of ministers, Tantawy was alleged to have stated that journalism which contributes to the spread of false rumours rather than true news deserved to be boycotted, and that it was tantamount to sinning for readers to purchase such newspapers. Tantawy, a supporter of then Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, also called for a punishment of eighty lashes to "those who spread rumors" in an indictment of speculation by journalists over Mubarak's ill health and possible death.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>aljazeera.net (Arabic Online)</ref> This was not the first time that he had criticized the Egyptian press regarding its news coverage nor the first time he in return had been accused by the press of opposing freedom of speech. During a religious celebration in the same month, Tantawy had released comments alluding to "the arrogant and the pretenders who accuse others with the ugliest vice and unsubstantiated charges". In response, Egypt's press union issued a statement suggesting that Tantawy appeared to be involved in inciting and escalating a campaign against journalists and freedom of the press.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Tantawy died in 2010 and was succeeded by Mohamed Ahmed el-Tayeb.

In 2016 Ahmed el-Tayeb reissued the fatwa on Shia Muslims, calling Shia the fifth school of Islam and seeing no problem with conversions from Sunni to Shia Islam.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, the NGOs report that violence and propaganda against the country's Shia minority continues. Shia Muslims are frequently denied services in addition to being called derogatory names. Anti-Shia sentiment is spread through education at all levels. Clerics educated at Al-Azhar University publicly promote sectarian beliefs by calling Shia Muslims infidels and encourage isolation and marginalization of Shia Muslims in Egypt.<ref>Shia Rights Watch: Egypt: For the people or against the people?</ref><ref>Al-Monitor: Iranian cleric calls out Egypt's Al-Azhar for anti-Shiite activities Template:Webarchive</ref>

Scholars from Al-Azhar declared the writings to Farag Foda to be blasphemous.<ref name=geneiveabdo>Template:Cite book</ref> Muhammad al-Ghazali, a member of Al-Azhar, declared Foda to be guilty of apostasy.<ref name=geneiveabdo/> According to Geneive Abdo, Muhammad al-Ghazali also added that anyone killing an apostate would not be punished, while according to Nathan Brown, Muhammad al-Ghazali stopped just short of condoning Foroda's assassination. <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Foda was assassinated in June 1992,<ref name=Miller>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Amnesty">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> by an Egyptian terrorist group al-Jama'a al-Islamiyya, who claimed justification from Al-Azhar's fatwas.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In response, a scholar at Al-Azhar published Man Qatala Faraj Fawda.<ref name="de Baets">Template:Cite book</ref>

Notable peopleEdit

Template:Alumni 10th–17th centuries

19th – early 20th centuries

1910s–1950s

1950–present

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See alsoEdit

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NotesEdit

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ReferencesEdit

Further readingEdit

OnlineEdit

External linksEdit

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Template:Universities in Egypt Template:Al-Azhar Template:Islamic Cairo Template:Association of African Universities Template:Authority control

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