Alessandro Manzoni

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by Francesco Hayez
(Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan, 1841)

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Alessandro Francesco Tommaso Antonio Manzoni (Template:IPAc-en, Template:IPAc-en, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; 7 March 1785 – 22 May 1873)Template:Sfn was an Italian poet, novelist and philosopher.Template:Sfn

He is famous for the novel The Betrothed (orig. Template:Langx) (1827), generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature.<ref name="britannica">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The novel is also a symbol of the Italian Risorgimento, both for its patriotic message<ref name="britannica" /> and because it was a fundamental milestone in the development of the modern, unified Italian language.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Manzoni also contributed to the stabilization of the modern Italian language and helped to ensure linguistic unity throughout Italy.

He was an influential proponent of Liberal Catholicism in Italy.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> His work and thinking has often been contrasted with that of his younger contemporary Giacomo Leopardi by critics.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Early lifeEdit

Manzoni was born in Milan, Italy, on 7 March 1785. Pietro, his father, aged about fifty, belonged to an old family of Lecco, originally feudal lords of Barzio, in the Valsassina.Template:Sfn However, his biological father was likely Giovanni Verri,Template:Sfn brother of the influential Enlightenment thinkers Pietro and Alessandro Verri, and a habitué, along with his brothers and Giulia Beccaria, of the dazzling liberal Società del Caffè. The poet's maternal grandfather, Cesare Beccaria, was a well-known author and philosopher, and his mother Giulia had literary talent as well.Template:Sfn The young Alessandro spent his first two years in cascina Costa in Galbiate and he was wet-nursed by Caterina Panzeri, as attested by a memorial tablet affixed in the place. In 1792 his parents broke their marriage and his mother began a relationship with the writer Carlo Imbonati, moving to England and later to Paris.<ref name="britannica" />

As a boy, Alessandro rarely saw his mother. He seems to have had a cool and distant relationship with his father. At the age of six, he was sent away from home to begin his schooling in a variety of religious boarding schools operated by the Somaschi and Barnabite fathers. From an early age, Alessandro was drawn to literature, to poetry in particular, and to the ideals of liberty, reason and atheism. Among his first poems was one from this period entitled The Triumph of Liberty (1801), a poem of considerable merit in praise of the French Revolution. In 1804 Manzoni began to frequent the circle of Neoclassical poets gathered around Vincenzo Monti, whom he had already known and admired for some time before; Monti's insfluence is especially apparent in th poems of Manzoni's classicist period, most notably Adda (1803), and Urania (1807).

His friendship with the scholars Francesco Lomonaco and Vincenzo Cuoco, who had fled Bourbon Naples after the fall of the Parthenopean Republic, further contributed to his revolutionary leanings and introduced him to historical studies and the philosophical ideas of Giambattista Vico.Template:Sfn In 1804 Cuoco entrusted the nineteen year old Manzoni with the editing of his novel Platone in Italia.Template:Sfn

Manzoni sojourned in Venice from the fall of 1803 to the spring of the following year. Here he attended salon hosted by Isabella Teotochi Albrizzi and made the acquaintance of Ippolito Pindemonte and Ugo Foscolo. Upon the death of his father in 1807, he joined the freethinking household of his mother at Auteuil, and spent two years mixing with the literary set of the so-called "ideologues", philosophers of the 18th-century school, among whom he made many friends, notably Claude Charles Fauriel. Through Fauriel and Madame de Condorcet, Manzoni met some of the leading intellectual figures of Paris, among them Augustin Thierry, François Guizot, Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis, and Benjamin Constant. At Auteuil, he developed a lifelong interest in liberalism. He was even supposed to marry the daughter of Antoine Destutt de Tracy.<ref name="auto">Template:Cite journal</ref> There too he imbibed the anti-Catholic creed of Voltairianism.Template:Sfn

In 1806–1807, while at Auteuil, he first appeared before the public as a poet, with two works, one entitled Urania, in the classical style, of which he became later the most conspicuous adversary, the other an elegy in blank verse, on the death of Count Carlo Imbonati, from whom, through his mother, he inherited considerable property, including the villa of Brusuglio, thenceforth his principal residence. In the notes to his Sepolcri, Foscolo highly praised Manzoni's ode In morte di Carlo Imbonati as the "poetry of a young talent born for literature and warm with love of country".Template:Sfn

1808–1821Edit

File:Famiglia Manzoni.jpg

Manzoni's family in adrawing by Ernesta Legnani Bisi

In 1808, Manzoni married Henriette Blondel, daughter of a Genevese banker. She came from a Calvinist family, but in 1810 she became a Roman Catholic.<ref>"Alessandro Manzoni," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XIII, 1888.</ref> Her conversion profoundly influenced her husband.<ref>Professor J. D. M. Ford. "Manzoni"</ref> That same year he experienced a religious crisis which led him from agnosticism to an austere form of Catholicism.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Manzoni family returned to Milan in June 1810. In 1814 Manzoni settled with his wife in the house in Via Morone, Milan, where he continued to live until his death. His marriage proved a happy one, and he led for many years a retired domestic life, divided between literature and the picturesque husbandry of Lombardy.

His intellectual energy in this period of his life was devoted to the composition of the Inni sacri, a series of sacred lyrics, and of a treatise on Catholic morality, Osservazioni sulla morale cattolica, a task undertaken under religious guidance, in reparation for his early lapse from faith. Two patriotic lyrics, celebrating the Milanese insurrection of 1814 the Rimini Proclamation of 1815, belong to the same epoch.Template:Sfn In 1818 he had to sell his paternal inheritance, as his money had been lost to a dishonest agent. His characteristic generosity was shown at this time in his dealings with his peasants, who were heavily indebted to him. He not only cancelled on the spot the record of all sums owed to him, but bade them keep for themselves the whole of the coming maize harvest.

While he shared many of the cultural and political aims of the Milanese Romantic circles, Manzoni was always cautious in his overt pronouncements. He declined invitations to contribute to the most prominent of the Italian Romantic literary magazine, the influential though short-lived Il Conciliatore (Sept. 1, 1818Template:SndOct. 10, 1819). In his only public statement on the subject, Lettera sul Romanticismo, published in 1823, he expressed agreement with the Romantics' condemnation of the use of classical mythology, slavish imitation of ancient authors, and normative rules such as the classical unities, but he rejected the excesses of northern European Romantics.<ref name="Jones2002">Jones 2002.</ref>

File:Il conte di Carmagnola Hayez.jpg

Illustration for the tragedy Il Conte di Carmagnola by Francesco Hayez

In 1819, Manzoni published his first tragedy, Il Conte di Carmagnola, which, boldly violating all classical conventions, excited a lively controversy. The protagonist of the play is the Renaissance condottiero Francesco Bussone, falsely accused of betrayal by the Venetian Senate, condemned to death, and executed. Though written in verse, the tragedy follows Romantic canons, disregarding the pseudo-Aristotelian unities of time and place and including choruses with the function of commenting on the action, as had been theorized by the German Romantic poet Schlegel.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> It was severely criticized in a Quarterly Review article to which Goethe replied in its defence, "one genius," as Angelo de Gubernatis remarks, "having divined the other."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Manzoni was enthused by the Piedmontese revolution of March 1821. On this occasion he wrote one of his most famous poems, the ode March 1821. First published only in 1848, the ode expresses Manzoni's enthusiasm over the news of the Turin insurrection an enthusiasm that led him to imagine the triumphal entry of the Piedmontese into Lombardy.

The death of Napoleon in 1821 inspired Manzoni's powerful stanzas Il Cinque maggio (The Fifth of May), one of the most popular lyrics in the Italian language.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The ode is a poetic meditation on destiny, and on the mystery of the great figures that from time to time burst onto the stage of history. The poetry is pervaded with a profound Christian spirit, perhaps even purer and intenser than the spirit of his more definitely religious works. The poem was immensely successful throughout Europe and was translated into German by Goethe.Template:Sfn The political events of that year, and the imprisonment of many of his friends, weighed much on Manzoni's mind, and the historical studies in which he sought distraction during his subsequent retirement at Brusuglio suggested his great work.

The BetrothedEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:I promessi sposi-008.jpg

Frontispiece of The Betrothed in the second definitive edition of 1840–1842

Manzoni started work on the novel in 1821,<ref>This appears from his letter to Fauriel of 3 November 1821, in which he discussed Walter Scott and his approach to the historical novel Template:Harv.</ref> but he began the actual composition of Fermo e Lucia on 24 April 1821, after reading the novels of Walter Scott, mainly in French translations.<ref name=":18">Template:Cite book</ref> Round the episode of the Innominato, historically identified with Bernardino Visconti, the first manuscript of the novel The Betrothed (in Italian I promessi sposi) began to grow into shape, and was completed in September 1823. The work was published, after being deeply reshaped by the author and revised by friends in 1825–1827, at the rate of a volume a year; it at once raised its author to the first rank of literary fame. It is generally agreed to be his greatest work, and the paradigm of modern Italian language.

Set in Lombardy under Spanish rule in the 17th century, the novel narrates the story of two fiancés, Renzo Tramaglino and Lucia Mondella, who endure famine, war, and plague as well as corruption in Church and State before they are finally united. The Betrothed is very much a realist novel: the two protagonists are ordinary people, the style and the language are plain and everyday, and the narrative situations are drawn from everyday life.

Immediately hailed as a work of genius, the novel was reprinted in Italian nine times within the next four years. It was soon translated into French, German and English. Such international writers as Goethe, Edgar Allan Poe and Stendhal, and the influential Italian critics Niccolò Tommaseo, Silvio Pellico, Pietro Giordani and Francesco de Sanctis praised the work.Template:Sfn In an enthusiastic review published in 1838 on the The Monthly Chronicle Mary Shelley called Manzoni "a man of first-rate genius"<ref>Template:Cite book </ref>

The Penguin Companion to European Literature notes that 'the book's real greatness lies in its delineation of character...in the heroine, Lucia, in Padre Cristoforo, the Capuchin friar, and the saintly cardinal (Borromeo) of Milan, he has created three living examples of that pure and wholehearted Christianity which is his ideal. But his psychological penetration extends also to those who fall short of this standard, whether through weakness or perversity, and the novel is rich in pictures of ordinary men and women, seen with a delightful irony and disenchantment which always stops short of cynicism, and which provides a perfect balance for the evangelical fervour of his ideal'. According to Peter Brooks "The Betrothed is the most original and powerful of European historical novels in the tradition of Walter Scott (...) It ranks with The Charterhouse of Parma and War and Peace as a drama of life lived within the dynamics of history".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Adelchi and later worksEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} In 1822, Manzoni had published his second tragedy, Adelchi, turning on the overthrow by Charlemagne of the Lombard domination in Italy, and containing many veiled allusions to the existing Austrian rule.Template:Sfn Manzoni published together with the Adelchi his Discourse on a few items of Longobard history in Italy, the best of his historical essays. Both the Adelchi and Il Conte di Carmagnola were quickly translated and circulated in France, Germany and England and won Manzoni the praise of György Lukács, who considered him "the most important exponent of historical drama at the time in Western Europe."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

File:I promessi sposi-753.jpg

Frontispiece of the Storia della colonna infame, 1842

With these works Manzoni's literary career was practically closed. Following a stay in Florence in 1827 he began a thorough linguistic revision of The Betrothed. His aim was to bring the novel's language closer to the kind of Florentine dialect spoken by the educated classes. He enlisted the help of two Florentine friends, Gaetano Cioni and Giovanni Battista Niccolini, to whom he gave copies of his novel, asking them to make corrections in the margin wherever the language was not in conformity with modern, cultured Florentine.<ref>Template:DBI</ref> The revised edition of his masterpiece was published in serialised form in 1840-42. It was integrated by 450 pictures by the famous illustrator Francesco Gonin.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

As an appendix to the second edition of the The Betrothed, Manzoni published in 1842 the Storia della colonna infame (History of the infamous column).<ref>English version: Template:Cite book</ref> The essay recounts the trial of Health Commissioner Guglielmo Piazza and barber Gian Giacomo Mora during the plague of 1630. Both men were sentenced to death as "untori" (people suspected of spreading the plague by smearing a poisonous substance on walls). The essay denounces the torture used, and the absurdity of the time's criminal legislation, as well as superstition and ignorance. Manzoni took its inspiration from Pietro Verri's Notes on torture, and Cesare Beccaria's more extensive and more famous On Crimes and Punishments. The essay's intention was to underscore the individual responsibilities and the perverse passions of those magistrates who knew very well they were sentencing innocent persons to death. The essay ispired Leonardo Sciascia's novel Morte dell'Inquisitore.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

After 1827 Manzoni's writings consisted mainly of essays on philosophy, history, politics and economics, literature, and above all language – most notably Sentir messa (1836), and the unfinished treatises Saggio comparativo sulla rivoluzione francese del 1789 e la rivoluzione italiana del 1859, begun in 1862, and Della lingua italiana, which were published posthumously.<ref name="Jones2002" />

Politics and economicsEdit

Manzoni favored the Italian unification and on February 1860 he was made a senator by the King of Italy Victor Emmanuel II.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Before and after his embracing an austere Catholicism upon marrying Henriette Blondel, Manzoni's politics can be broadly described as progressive liberal.

Since his French trip, Manzoni's liberalism included a profound understanding of economics. He was well acquainted with authors such as Jean-Baptiste Say and Adam Smith and left numerous notes on the economic treatises and essays he was reading. His understanding of economics came to surface in his grand historical novel The Betrothed, particularly in Chapter 12, where he deals with the famine in Lombardy. Economist and President of the Italian Republic Luigi Einaudi praised the chapter and the whole of The Betrothed as "one of the best treatises on political economy ever written".<ref name="auto" /> Economic historian Deirdre N. McCloskey likewise described it as "a lecture in Economics 101".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Clearleft

Family, death and legacyEdit

File:Ritratto di Teresa Manzoni Stampa Borri by Francesco Hayez.jpg

Portrait of Teresa Borri by Francesco Hayez

On 25th December, 1833, Manzoni's wife Henriette died, a loss which was followed nine months later by the death of his eldest daughter, Giulietta, wife of Massimo D'Azeglio. In the mid-1830s he attended the "Salotto Maffei", a salon in Milan hosted by Clara Maffei, and in 1837 he married again, to Teresa Borri, widow of Count Decio Stampa. The new Mrs. Manzoni's nature was not the docile and conciliating one of Henriette, and she didn't get along very well either with her mother-in-law nor with step-children.

In 1845, more grief was added: Teresa bore twins, one of whom was stillborn, and the other of whom lived only a few hours. The last years of the writer's life were marred by the death of his mother (1841) , his second wife (1861), six of his children, and his closest friends, Charles Fauriel (1844), Tommaso Grossi (1853) and Antonio Rosmini (1855).

In 1860 King Victor Emmanuel II named him a senator.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Owing to his prestige in the field of studies on the problem of language something that had engaged his attention while he was writing the novel on up to his Lettera a Giacinto Carena sulla lingua italiana (Letter to Giacinto Carena on the Italian language, 1846) Manzoni was appointed chairman of a commission dealing with this subject by the minister of public education, Emilio Broglio. In this capacity, he wrote a report entitled Dell'unità della lingua e dei mezzi per diffonderla (On the unity of the language and on the means for achieving it, 1868). It was published the same year in the March issue of the Nuova Antologia and in La Perseveranza of 5th March. The Minister of Education decided to adopt Manzoni's recommendations and under his auspices the Nuovo Vocabolario della lingua italiana was begun in accordance with Manzoni's criterion, namely the acceptance of the living usage of Florence.

The death of his eldest son, Pier Luigi, on 28 April 1873, was the final blow which hastened his end. He was already weakened as he had fallen on 6 January while exiting the San Fedele church, hitting his head on the steps, and he died after 5 months of cerebral meningitis, a complication of the trauma.

His funeral was celebrated in the Milan Cathedral with almost royal pomp.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Manzoni's remains, after they lay in state for some days, were followed to the Cimitero Monumentale in Milan by a vast cortege, including the royal princes and all the great officers of state. A monument to Manzoni by Francesco Barzaghi, was erected in the Piazza San Fedele in 1883; however his noblest monument was Giuseppe Verdi's Requiem, written in 1874 to honour his memory. In modern times, Manzoni has been honored twice with a Google Doodle. Natalia Ginzburg wrote a biographical study of Manzoni and his family based on Manzoni family letters (La famiglia Manzoni, 1983; Eng. trans. The Manzoni Family, 1987).

File:7004 - Milano - Monumento al Manzoni in p.zza San Fedele - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto 8-Mar-2007.jpg

Monument to Alessandro Manzoni in Piazza San Fedele, Milan

His treatise Osservazioni sulla morale cattolica was quoted by Pope Pius XI in his encyclical on Christian Education Divini Illius Magistri:

"20. It is worthy of note how a layman, an excellent writer and at the same time a profound and conscientious thinker, has been able to understand well and express exactly this fundamental Catholic doctrine: 'The Church does not say that morality belongs purely, in the sense of exclusively, to her; but that it belongs wholly to her. She has never maintained that outside her fold and apart from her teaching, man cannot arrive at any moral truth; she has on the contrary more than once condemned this opinion because it has appeared under more forms than one. She does however say, has said, and will ever say, that because of her institution by Jesus Christ, because of the Holy Ghost sent her in His name by the Father, she alone possesses what she has had immediately from God and can never lose, the whole of moral truth, omnem veritatem, in which all individual moral truths are included, as well those which man may learn by the help of reason, as those which form part of revelation or which may be deduced from it'".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
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Manzoni's works have exerted enormous influence on Italian culture. The language employed in his masterpiece, The Betrothed has shaped the language which, after the unification of Italy (1861), became the chief model of standard educated Italian. The Betrothed has shaped Italians' ways of thinking, often in unconscious ways, more than any other novel and verbal borrowings from it have become embedded in everyday language, as well as constantly resurfacing in films, books, and journalism.<ref name=Jones2002/>

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