Aluminium hydroxide
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Aluminium hydroxide, Template:Chem2, is found as the mineral gibbsite (also known as hydrargillite) and its three much rarer polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite, and nordstrandite. Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric, i.e., it has both basic and acidic properties. Closely related are aluminium oxide hydroxide, AlO(OH), and aluminium oxide or alumina (Template:Chem2), the latter of which is also amphoteric. These compounds together are the major components of the aluminium ore bauxite. Aluminium hydroxide also forms a gelatinous precipitate in water.
StructureEdit
Template:Chem2 is built up of double layers of hydroxyl groups with aluminium ions occupying two-thirds of the octahedral holes between the two layers.<ref>Template:Wells4th</ref><ref name="properties">Template:Cite book</ref> Four polymorphs are recognized.<ref name = Karamalidis>Template:Cite book</ref> All feature layers of octahedral aluminium hydroxide units, with hydrogen bonds between the layers. The polymorphs differ in terms of the stacking of the layers. All forms of Template:Chem2 crystals are hexagonal Template:Disputed inline:
- gibbsite is also known as γ-Template:Chem2 <ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> or α-Template:Chem2 Template:Citation needed
- bayerite is also known as α-Template:Chem2<ref name=":1" /> or β-alumina trihydrateTemplate:Citation needed
- nordstrandite is also known as Template:Chem2<ref name=":1" />
- doyleite
Hydrargillite, once thought to be aluminium hydroxide, is an aluminium phosphate. Nonetheless, both gibbsite and hydrargillite refer to the same polymorphism of aluminium hydroxide, with gibbsite used most commonly in the United States and hydrargillite used more often in Europe. Hydrargillite is named after the Greek words for water ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and clay ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).
PropertiesEdit
Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric. In acid, it acts as a Brønsted–Lowry base. It neutralizes the acid, yielding a salt:<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In bases, it acts as a Lewis acid by binding hydroxide ions:<ref name=":0" />
ProductionEdit
Virtually all the aluminium hydroxide used commercially is manufactured by the Bayer process<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> which involves dissolving bauxite in sodium hydroxide at temperatures up to Template:Convert. The waste solid, bauxite tailings, is removed and aluminium hydroxide is precipitated from the remaining solution of sodium aluminate. This aluminium hydroxide can be converted to aluminium oxide or alumina by calcination.Template:Cn
The residue or bauxite tailings, which is mostly iron oxide, is highly caustic due to residual sodium hydroxide. It was historically stored in lagoons; this led to the Ajka alumina plant accident in 2010 in Hungary, where a dam bursting led to the drowning of nine people. An additional 122 sought treatment for chemical burns. The mud contaminated Template:Convert of land and reached the Danube. While the mud was considered non-toxic due to low levels of heavy metals, the associated slurry had a pH of 13.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
UsesEdit
Filler and fire retardantEdit
Aluminium hydroxide finds use as a fire retardant filler for polymer applications. It is selected for these applications because it is colorless (like most polymers), inexpensive, and has good fire retardant properties.<ref name=Ullmann>Template:Ullmann</ref> Magnesium hydroxide and mixtures of huntite and hydromagnesite are used similarly.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These mixtures start to decompose at temperatures around Template:Convert to Template:Convert (depending on the type of aluminium hydroxide used), absorbing a considerable amount of heat in the process and giving off water vapour. The decomposition rate of aluminium hydroxide increases with an increase in temperature, with a reported maximum rate at Template:Convert.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In addition to behaving as a fire retardant, it is very effective as a smoke suppressant in a wide range of polymers, most especially in polyesters, acrylics, ethylene vinyl acetate, epoxies, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), rubber,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> as well as in wood-based products.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Aluminium hydroxide is used as filler in some artificial stone compound material, often in acrylic resin.Template:Cn
Precursor to Al compoundsEdit
Aluminium hydroxide is a feedstock for the manufacture of other aluminium compounds: calcined aluminas, aluminium sulfate, polyaluminium chloride, aluminium chloride, zeolites, sodium aluminate, activated alumina, and aluminium nitrate.<ref name="properties" />
Freshly precipitated aluminium hydroxide forms gels, which are the basis for the application of aluminium salts as flocculants in water purification. This gel crystallizes with time. Aluminium hydroxide gels can be dehydrated (e.g. using water-miscible non-aqueous solvents like ethanol) to form an amorphous aluminium hydroxide powder, which is readily soluble in acids. Heating converts it to activated aluminas, which are used as desiccants, adsorbent in gas purification, and catalyst supports.<ref name=Ullmann/>
PharmaceuticalEdit
Under the generic name "algeldrate", aluminium hydroxide is used as an antacid in humans and animals (mainly cats and dogs). It is preferred over other alternatives such as sodium bicarbonate because Template:Chem2, being insoluble, does not increase the pH of stomach above 7, and hence does not trigger secretion of excess acid by the stomach. Brand names include Alu-Cap, Aludrox, Gaviscon or Pepsamar. It reacts with excess acid in the stomach, reducing the acidity of the stomach content,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=papich>Template:Cite book</ref> which may relieve the symptoms of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. Such products can cause constipation, because the aluminium ions inhibit the contractions of smooth muscle cells in the gastrointestinal tract, slowing peristalsis and lengthening the time needed for stool to pass through the colon.<ref name="Washington1991">Template:Cite book</ref> Some such products are formulated to minimize such effects through the inclusion of equal concentrations of magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
This compound is also used to control hyperphosphatemia (elevated phosphate, or phosphorus, levels in the blood) in people and animals suffering from kidney failure. Normally, the kidneys filter excess phosphate out from the blood, but kidney failure can cause phosphate to accumulate. The aluminium salt, when ingested, binds to phosphate in the intestines and reduce the amount of phosphorus that can be absorbed.<ref name=plumb>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Precipitated aluminium hydroxide is included as an adjuvant in some vaccines (e.g. anthrax vaccine). One of the well-known brands of aluminium hydroxide adjuvant is Alhydrogel, made by Brenntag Biosector.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Full citation neededTemplate:Dead link Since it absorbs protein well, it also functions to stabilize vaccines by preventing the proteins in the vaccine from precipitating or sticking to the walls of the container during storage. Aluminium hydroxide is sometimes called "alum", a term generally reserved for one of several sulfates.Template:Citation needed
Vaccine formulations containing aluminium hydroxide stimulate the immune system by inducing the release of uric acid, an immunological danger signal. This strongly attracts certain types of monocytes which differentiate into dendritic cells. The dendritic cells pick up the antigen, carry it to lymph nodes, and stimulate T cells and B cells.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It appears to contribute to induction of a good Th2 response, so is useful for immunizing against pathogens that are blocked by antibodies. However, it has little capacity to stimulate cellular (Th1) immune responses, important for protection against many pathogens,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> nor is it useful when the antigen is peptide-based.<ref name = Cranage>Template:Cite book</ref>
SafetyEdit
In the 1960s and 1970s it was speculated that aluminium was related to various neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease.<ref name=ALZ>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=AS>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Since then, multiple epidemiological studies have found no connection between exposure to environmental or swallowed aluminium and neurological disorders, though injected aluminium was not looked at in these studies.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Neural disorders were found in experiments on mice motivated by Gulf War illness (GWI). Aluminium hydroxide injected in doses equivalent to those administered to the United States military, showed increased reactive astrocytes, increased apoptosis of motor neurons and microglial proliferation within the spinal cord and cortex.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
ReferencesEdit
External linksEdit
- International Chemical Safety Card 0373
- "Some properties of aluminum hydroxide precipitated in the presence of clays", Soil Research Institute, R C Turner, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa
- Effect of ageing on properties of polynuclear hydroxyaluminium cations
- A second species of polynuclear hydroxyaluminium cation, its formation and some of its properties
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