Banditry
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Banditry is a type of organized crime committed by outlaws typically involving the threat or use of violence. A person who engages in banditry is known as a bandit and primarily commits crimes such as extortion, robbery, kidnapping, and murder, either as an individual or in groups. Banditry is a vague concept of criminality and in modern usage can be synonymous with gangsterism, brigandage, marauding, terrorism, piracy, and thievery.
DefinitionsEdit
The term bandit (introduced to English via Italian around 1776) originates with the early Germanic legal practice of outlawing criminals, termed *bamnan (English ban). The legal term in the Holy Roman Empire was Acht or Reichsacht, translated as "Imperial ban". In modern Italian, the equivalent word "bandito" literally means banned or a banned person.
The New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (NED) defined "bandit" in 1885 as "one who is proscribed or outlawed; hence, a lawless desperate marauder, a brigand: usually applied to members of the organized gangs which infest the mountainous districts of Italy, Sicily, Spain, Greece, Iran, and Turkey".
In modern usage the word has become a synonym for "thief", hence the term "one-armed bandit" for gambling machines that can leave the gambler with no money.<ref>Template:Cite dictionary — Earlier version first published in New English Dictionary, 1885. Template:Subscription required</ref>
TypesEdit
Social banditEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} "Social banditry" is a term invented by the historian Eric Hobsbawm in his 1959 book Primitive Rebels, a study of popular forms of resistance that also incorporate behaviour characterized as illegal. He further expanded the field in the 1969 study Bandits. Social banditry is a widespread phenomenon that has occurred in many societies throughout recorded history, and forms of social banditry still exist, as evidenced by piracy and organized crime syndicates.
PiracyEdit
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Cattle raidingEdit
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HistoryEdit
EuropeEdit
Medieval periodEdit
Tradition depicts medieval German robber barons as bandits.<ref> Template:Cite book </ref>
Pope Sixtus V had about 5,000 bandits executed in the five years before his death in 1590, but there were reputedly 27,000 more at liberty throughout Central Italy.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Brigandry in ItalyEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Banditry or brigandry, while existing in Italy since pre-historic times, became particularly widespread in Southern Italy following the Unification of Italy in the 1860s. Brigands such as Carmine Crocco, Michelina Di Cesare, Ninco Nanco, and Nicola Napolitano were active during this period and eventually developed followings as folk heroes. Brigandage in Southern Italy continued sporadically following the 1870s, with brigands such as Giuseppe Musolino and Francesco Paolo Varsallona forming bandit gangs at the turn of the 20th century. Salvatore Giuliano and Gaspare Pisciotta formed a brigand group in Sicily in the 1940s to 1950 and similarly became known as folk heroes. Sardinia has a long history of banditry, with the bandit and kidnapping group anonima sarda being the most recent manifestation of this phenomenon.
Nazi-occupied EuropeEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} In Nazi-occupied Europe from 1939 to 1945, the German doctrine of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("bandit fighting") portrayed opponents of the Greater Germanic Reich as "bandits" — dangerous criminals who did not deserve any consideration as human beings. German authorities suppressed partisan opposition with maximum force<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and, usually, with the mass slavery of civilians from partisan-controlled areas.<ref> Template:Cite book</ref>
ChinaEdit
Ming ChinaEdit
Banditry (Dao, qiangdao) in Ming China (1368–1644) was defined by the Ming government as “‘robbery by force’ punishable by death.”<ref name="Robinson2000">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp But throughout the dynasty, people had entered into the occupation of banditry for various reasons and the occupation of banditry was fluid and temporary.
Causes and opportunitiesEdit
Ming China was largely an agricultural society and contemporary observers remarked that famine and subsequent hardship often gave rise to banditry.<ref name="Tong1991">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp In his 1991 book Disorder under Heaven: Collective Violence in the Ming Dynasty, James W. Tong uses data from provincial and prefectural gazetteers of the Ming and the Qing Dynasties to analyze patterns of violence during the Ming Dynasty.<ref name="Tong1991"/>Template:Rp Tong analyzes that the peasants had to make a "rational choice" between surviving harsh conditions and surviving through illegal activities of banditry. He identifies multiple important factors in peasants' calculation of whether to become bandits or not, such as the government's ability to punish bandits.<ref name="Tong1991"/>Template:Rp Tong concludes that his "rational choice model predicts that there would be more rebellions and banditry where the likelihood of surviving hardship is minimal but the likelihood of surviving as an outlaw is maximal."<ref name="Tong1991"/>Template:Rp As a result, Tong finds that banditry, like other types of collective violence, had a spatial and temporal pattern.<ref name="Tong1991"/>Template:Rp Banditry was especially pervasive in the southern provinces (most notably Guangdong and Fujian) and the second half of the dynasty (1506-1644).<ref name="Tong1991"/>Template:Rp
However, the Northern China and the middle Ming period (1450–1525) had their fair share of banditry. Mounted banditry was the major and pervasive type of banditry plaguing roads around the capital Beijing and its surrounding areas, administrated and named as the Capital Region.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp Xiangmazei (whistling arrow bandits) was a category of mounted bandits named after their practice of firing whistling arrows to alert their victims.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp Whistling arrow bandits had troubled the Capital Region throughout the first three decades of the sixteenth century.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp They had posed such serious threat that special police attention was given to them and failure to arrest them on time incurred severer punishment (further information on Ming justice system can be found in History of criminal justice).<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp
Ming historian David M. Robinson identifies some prominent causes of banditry in the Capital Region. The Region was agriculturally disadvantaged due to constant flood, and thus the peasants often lived in poverty.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp Furthermore, the Region's economy provided plentiful opportunities for highway robbery. In addition to the highly developed economy of Beijing, the Region also contained numerous commercial cities; these cities not only attracted merchants but also bandits.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp Robinson also points out that many eunuchs in Beijing resorted to banditry.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp As Shih-Shan Henry Tsai explained, self-castration was just another way to escape impoverishment; and when a group of eunuchs failed to find employment in the palace, they often turned to mob violence.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The Capital Region also housed a huge number of soldiers with Ming's system of hereditary military and a major portion of bandits were actually soldiers stationed in the region.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp In 1449, Mongolian soldiers in the service of Ming attacked and plundered Beijing area.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp Another report of 1489 attested that soldiers had raided in Henan province.<ref name="Robinson2001">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Robinson points out that "dire economic straits" forced soldiers to use illegal means to make a living.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp Also, policies and conditions in the Capital Region provided opportunities for soldiers/bandits to dodge governmental punishment. During the Ming Dynasty, military and civil jurisdictions were separated.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp This was especially troubling when soldiers lived physically far from their superiors: when soldiers committed robbery, civil officials had no jurisdiction nor power to apprehend them.<ref name="Robinson2001"/>Template:Rp Policy of transporting nearby garrisons to Beijing for annual training also created opportunities for banditry. One official reported that soldiers travelling by the Grand Canal from adjacent garrisons to the capital committed robbery and murder against civilian travelers and merchants; on the land, these soldiers had fallen into mounted banditry as well.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp
Techniques, organization, livelihood, and risksEdit
Bandits’ technique involved the martial skills to use various weapons, ranging from bows and arrows to swords.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp Another important skill was horsemanship, especially in the Northern Capital Region, where mounted banditry concentrated. As shown above, a large number of bandits were actually garrison soldiers and had access to and able usage of weapons and armors. Another skill was the ability to deploy road blocks to stop and prey on travelers.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp
Once they forcefully acquired goods and commodities, bandits had to sell them. One 1485 official report revealed that local people, some probably working as fences (see Fences in Ming China), purchased stolen animals and goods from highway bandits at lower prices.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp Robinson further points out that "[a] widespread network to dispose of the stolen livestock linked" towns in the Capital Region to nearby provinces.<ref name="Robinson2000" />Template:Rp
The career nor the identity of a bandit was permanent. Some bandits actually had a settled life and were even married. Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty relates that the great bandit Zhang Mao lived in a big mansion in his hometown Wenan.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp Similarly, Zhang's comrades Liu Brothers and Tiger Yang had wives and children.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp
Bandits often operated in groups under one or more leaders. These charismatic leaders were not only skilled in fighting and riding but also possessed material and social capital. One exemplary leader was Zhang Mao of Wenan. He had assembled a massive following and by using his connection and wealth, he managed to bribe and befriend important eunuchs in the court.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp
Of course, the Ming government used a heavy hand to crack down on banditry. Local commanders and constables were responsible for apprehending bandits, but the emperors often dispatched special censors to cope with rampant banditry.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp Ning Gao was one of the censors of 1509, and he employed gruesome means such as display of severed heads and body parts to kill off existing bandits and to intimidate potential ones.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp Other than escaping to difficult terrains, powerful bandits used their connections with high-standing figures in the capital to negotiate safety. In one occasion, the influential eunuch Zhang Zhong helped his sworn brother Zhang Mao to negotiate with a commander sent to hunt down local bandits.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp However, such patronage did not guarantee immunity. An effective and determined official, empowered by influential superiors or eunuchs, could pose a severe threat to bandits’ survival. Through a well-planned raid, Ning Gao, a client of another powerful eunuch Liu Jin, successfully wounded and captured Zhang Mao, who was then transported to Beijing and executed.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp
Future paths of banditsEdit
Even though bandits were subject to capital punishment, they could still be incorporated into the regime, serving as local police forces and personal soldiers employed by officials to secure order and suppress bandits.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp Such transition was not permanent and could often be reversed. Tiger Yang once served as a personal military retainer of the aforementioned Ning Gao before turning to banditry; similarly, when facing unemployment, some of Ning's former "bandit catchers" simply joined the bandit leaders Liu Brothers.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp
The career of banditry often led leaders to assemble more bandits and army deserters and organize predatory gangs into active rebel groups. One example was Gao Yingxiang, who started as a mounted bandit in Shaanxi and later became an important rebel leader in late Ming.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Another example would be Deng Maoqi, a bandit in Fujian who perpetrated robbery on roads and in villages in the late 1440s.<ref name="Dardess2012">Template:Cite book</ref> His gang of bandits eventually grew into a rebel army and Deng conducted attacks on the government in Fujian.<ref name="Dardess2012" /> Bandit-rebels were not only common in late Ming. In 1510 and 1511, several bandit gangs under the leadership of Liu Brothers, Tiger Yang raided and plundered Shandong and Henan.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp Their illegal actions eventually evolved into open rebellion against the Ming Dynasty as they blatantly besieged cities, seized imperial weaponry, extended area of operation southward, and even assumed rhetoric and attire of an imperial dynasty.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp The rebellion took the Ming almost two years to crush.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp
Similarly, small groups of local bandits could also end up joining larger groups of rebels. Robinson points out that bandits obviously perceived the benefits of supporting rebel cause but they also could be repelled to join; as a result, the 1510s rebels attracted a lot of local bandits and outlaws as they moved from one place to another.<ref name="Robinson2001" />Template:Rp
Republican periodEdit
Marauding was one of the most common peasant reactions to oppression and hardship. In early Republican China, the growth of warlord armies during the Warlord era was also accompanied by a dramatic increase in bandit activity exploiting the lawlessness. By 1930, the total bandit population was estimated to be 20 million.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
ListEdit
AmericasEdit
- Banditry in Chile
- Cangaço, banditry in Northeast Region, Brazil
- Jagunço
AsiaEdit
EuropeEdit
- Abrek, Anti-Cossack/Russian guerilla raiders in the North Caucasus, especially Chechnya
- Bagaudae, bandits around the Pyrenees in the Roman Empire
- Betyárs, bandits in Kingdom of Hungary
- Border reivers
- Brigandage in the Two Sicilies, bandits in South Italy (1861-65)
- Hajduks, bandits in the Balkans
- Kirdzhalis
- Klepht, anti-Ottoman insurgents in Greece and Cyprus
- Rapparee, Irish guerrillas during the 1690s Williamite war
- Robber baron
- Sardinian banditry
- Uskoks, Croatian Habsburg soldiers during the Ottoman wars in Europe
OceaniaEdit
- Bushranger, bandits in Australia (1790s–1900s)
Related occupationsEdit
- Fence, helping bandits to sell stolen goods.
- Guerrilla warfare
- Irregular military, how bandits were sometimes treated in chaotic times.
- Henchman
- Highwayman