Boron hydride clusters
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Boron hydride clusters are compounds with the formula Template:Chem2 or related anions, where x ≥ 3. Many such cluster compounds are known. Common examples are those with 5, 10, and 12 boron atoms. Although they have few practical applications, the borane hydride clusters exhibit structures and bonding that differs strongly from the patterns seen in hydrocarbons. Hybrids of boranes and hydrocarbons, the carboranes are also well developed.<ref name=G&E/>
HistoryEdit
The development of the borane hydride clusters resulted from pioneering work by Alfred Stock, invented the glass vacuum line for their study.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The structures of the boron hydride clusters were determined beginning in 1948 with the characterization of decaborane. William Lipscomb was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1976 for this and many subsequent crystallographic investigations. These investigations revealed the prevalence of deltahedral structures, i.e., networks of triangular arrays of BH centers.
The bonding of the clusters ushered in Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory and Wade's rules, which can be used to predict the structures of boranes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These rules were found to describe structures of many cluster compounds.
Chemical formula and naming conventionsEdit
Borane clusters are classified as follows, where n is the number of boron atoms in a single cluster:<ref name=G&E>Template:Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd pp 151-195</ref><ref>Template:Cotton&Wilkinson6th</ref><ref>Lipscomb W. N. Boron Hydrides. Benjamin, New York (1963).</ref>
| Cluster type | Chemical formula | Example | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| hypercloso- | Template:Chem2 | Unstable; derivatives are known<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> | |
| closo- | Template:Chem2 | Caesium dodecaborate | |
| nido- | Template:Chem2 | pentaborane(9) | |
| arachno- | Template:Chem2 | pentaborane(11) | |
| hypho- | Template:Chem2 | Only found in adducts |
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry rules for systematic naming is based on a prefix denoting a class of compound, followed by the number of boron atoms and finally the number of hydrogen atoms in parentheses. Various details can be omitted if there is no ambiguity about the meaning, for example, if only one structural type is possible. Some examples of the structures are shown below.
- Borane-3D-balls.png
- Diborane-3D-balls-A.png
- Tetraborane-3D-balls.png
- Pentaborane(9)-from-xtal-view-1-Mercury-3D-bs.png
- Decaborane(14)-from-xtal-view-1-tilt-3D-bs-17.png
- B18H22 from Xray coordinates.tif
- Iso-B18H22 from Xray coordinates.tif
iso-Template:Chem2
- Hexaborate(6)-dianion-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
Hexaborate(6)
Template:Chem2 - Heptaborate(7)-dianion-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
Heptaborate(7)
Template:Chem2 - Octaborate(8)-dianion-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
Octaborate(8)
Template:Chem2 - Nonaborate(9)-dianion-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
Nonaborate(9)
Template:Chem2 - Decaborate(10)-dianion-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
Decaborate(10)
Template:Chem2 - Closo-undecaborate(11)-dianion-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
Undecaborate(11)
Template:Chem2 - Dodecaborate(12)-dianion-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
The naming of anions is illustrated by
- octahydridopentaborate, Template:Chem2
The hydrogen count is specified first followed by the boron count. The -ate suffix is applied with anions. The ionic charge value is included in the chemical formula but not as part of the systematic name.
Bonding in boranesEdit
Boranes are nonclassically–bonded compounds, that is, there are not enough electrons to form 2-centre, 2-electron bonds between all pairs of adjacent atoms in the molecule. A description of the bonding in the larger boranes was formulated by William Lipscomb. It involved:
- 3-center 2-electron B-H-B hydrogen bridges
- 3-center 2-electron B-B-B bonds
- 2-center 2-electron bonds (in B-B, B-H and Template:Chem2)
Lipscomb's methodology has largely been superseded by a molecular orbital approach. This allows the concept of multi-centre bonding to be extended. For example, in the icosahedral ion Template:Chem2, the totally symmetric (Ag symmetry) molecular orbital is equally distributed among all 12 boron atoms. Wade's rules provide a powerful method that can be used to rationalize the structures in terms of the number of atoms and the connectivity between them.
Multicluster boranesEdit
Although relatively rare, several multi-cluster boranes have been characterized. For example, reaction of a borane cluster with Template:Chem2 (as a source of Template:Chem2) can lead to the formation of a conjuncto-borane species in which borane cluster sub-units are joined by the sharing of boron atoms.<ref>Template:Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd p. 162</ref>
Other conjuncto-boranes, where the sub-units are joined by a B-B bond, can be made by ultra violet irradiation of nido-boranes. Some B-B coupled conjuncto-boranes can be produced using Template:Chem2 as catalyst.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Analogous to Wade's Rules, electron counting scheme has been developed to predict or rationalize multicluster boranes.
| Prefix | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| klado- | branched clusters | |
| conjuncto- | conjoined clusters | |
| megalo- | multiple conjoined clusters |
Lewis acid/base behaviorEdit
Some function as electron donors owing to the relative basic character of the Template:Chem2 groups. Boranes can function as ligands in coordination compounds.<ref name="BoranesAsLigands">Template:Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd</ref> Hapticities of η1 to η6 have been found, with electron donation involving bridging H atoms or donation from B-B bonds. For example, nido-Template:Chem2 can replace ethene in Zeise's salt to produce Template:Chem2.<ref name="BoranesAsLigands"/>
They can also act as Lewis acids, with concomitant opening of the cluster. An example involving trimethylphosphine:
Brønsted acid/base behaviorEdit
Some higher boranes, especially those with bridging hydrogen atoms, can be deprotonated with a strong base. An example:
Acidity increases with the size of the borane, with Template:Chem2 having a pKa value of 2.7:<ref>Template:Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd p. 171</ref>
In general, bridging hydrogen protons tend to be lost before terminal ones.<ref>Template:Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd</ref>
Aufbau reactionsEdit
For the boron hydride chemist, one of the most important reactions is the building up process by which smaller boron hydride clusters add borane to give larger clusters. This approach also applies to the synthesis of metallaboranes,
HydroborationEdit
Reminiscent of the behavior of diborane and its adducts, higher boranes participate in hydroboration. When boron hydrides add an alkyne, the carbon becomes incorporated into the cluster, producing carboranes, e.g. Template:Chem2.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
ApplicationsEdit
Some cobalt derivatives of carboranes have been commercialized for sequestering [[Caesium-137|Template:Chem2]] from radioactive waste.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Boranes have a high specific energy of combustion compared to hydrocarbons, making them potentially attractive as fuels or igniters. Intense research was carried out in the 1950s into their use as jet fuel additives, but the effort did not lead to practical results.
Aspirational usesEdit
Because Template:Chem2 has a very high neutron-capture cross section, boron-hydride derivatives have often been investigated for applications in Neutron capture therapy of cancer.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Template:Chem2 (2.4 Mev)
See alsoEdit
- Category:Boranes, containing all specific borane-compound articles
ReferencesEdit
Template:Boron compounds Template:Hydrides by group Template:Authority control