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Kaffir lime

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Citrus hystrix, called the kaffir lime, Thai lime<ref name=":0" /> or makrut lime,<ref>Template:Citation</ref> (Template:IPAc-en, Template:IPAc-en)<ref name="grin">Template:GRIN</ref> is a citrus fruit native to tropical Southeast Asia.<ref name="npark">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Dead link</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Its fruit and leaves are used in Southeast Asian cuisine, and its essential oil is used in perfumery.<ref name=Ng>Template:Cite journal</ref> Its rind and crushed leaves emit an intense citrus fragrance.

NamesEdit

File:Citrus hystrix Blanco2.408-cropped.jpg
Illustration of C. hystrix by Francisco Manuel Blanco

"Kaffir" is thought to ultimately derive from the Arabic kafir, meaning infidel, though the mechanism by which it came to be applied to the lime is uncertain. Following the takeover of the Swahili coast, Muslims used the term to refer to the non-Muslim indigenous Africans, who were increasingly abducted for the Indian Ocean slave trade, which reached a height in the fifteenth and sixteenth century.Template:Citation needed

The most likely etymology is through the Kaffirs, an ethnic group in Sri Lanka partly descended from enslaved Bantu.<ref name="Slate 140703">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The earliest known reference, under the alternative spelling "caffre" is in the 1888 book The Cultivated Oranges, Lemons Etc. of India and Ceylon by Emanuel Bonavia, who notes, "The plantation coolies also smear it over their feet and legs, to keep off land leeches; and therefore in Ceylon [Sri Lanka] it has also got the name of Kudalu dchi, or Leech Lime. Europeans call it Caffre Lime."<ref name="Slate 140703"/><ref name="Bonavia">Template:Cite book</ref> Similarly, H.F. MacMillan's 1910 book A Handbook of Tropical Gardening and Planting notes, "The 'Kaffir Lime' in Ceylon."<ref name="Slate 140703"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Another proposed etymology is directly by Indian Muslims of the imported fruit from the non-Muslim lands to the east to "convey otherness and exotic provenance."<ref name="Slate 140703"/> Claims that the name of the fruit derives directly from the South African ethnic slur "kaffir" (see "South Africa" below) are not well supported.<ref name="Slate 140703"/>

C. hystrix is known by various names in its native areas:

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  • Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "arrow-leaf lime") in Chinese.
  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in the Philippines.<ref name="CRC Press/Taylor & Francis">Template:Cite book</ref> The city of Cabuyao in Laguna is named after the fruit.<ref name="CRC Press/Taylor & Francis"/>
  • Kolumichai, கொலுமிச்சை in Kongu Tamil<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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  • {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in Réunion Island

The micrantha, a similar citrus fruit native to the Philippines that is ancestral to several hybrid limes, such as the Key lime and Persian lime, may represent the same species as C. hystrix, but the genomic characterization of the kaffir lime has not been performed in sufficient detail to allow a definitive conclusion.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

South AfricaEdit

In South Africa, the Arabic kafir was adopted by White colonialists as "kaffir,"<ref name="Slate 140703"/> an ethnic slur for black African people.<ref name="straight.com">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Consequently, some authors favour switching from "kaffir lime" to "makrut lime," a less well-known name, while in South Africa, it is usually referred to as "Thai lime".<ref name="McKenna2015">Template:Citation</ref><ref>Common lime name has racist history by Khalil Akhtar, CBC News, Jul 8, 2014</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

DescriptionEdit

C. hystrix is a thorny shrub or small tree, Template:Convert tall, with aromatic and distinctively shaped "double" leaves.<ref name="Kumar2008">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="StaplesKristiansen1999"/> These hourglass-shaped leaves comprise the leaf blade plus a flattened, leaf-like stalk (botanically, a winged petiole). The fruit is rough and green and ripens to yellow; it is distinguished by its bumpy exterior and small size, approximately Template:Convert wide.<ref name="StaplesKristiansen1999">Template:Cite book</ref> The fruits have thick skins (pericarps) and taste very acidic and slightly bitter.<ref name="Flora Of China">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Flowers can have four to five petals that are white in color and are fragrant.<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

HistoryEdit

Pierre Sonnerat (1748–1814) collected specimens of it in 1771–72, and it appears in Lamarck's Encyclopédie Méthodique (1796).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Makrut lime appears in texts under the name of kaffir lime in 1868, in Ceylon, where rubbing the juice onto legs and socks prevents leech bites.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> This could be a possible origin of the name leech lime.

UsesEdit

CulinaryEdit

C. hystrix leaves are used in Southeast Asian cuisines such as Indonesian, Laotian, Cambodian, and Thai. The leaves are the most frequently used part of the plant, fresh, dried, or frozen. The leaves are widely used in Thai cuisine<ref name="thaitravel">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="BP-20171112">Template:Cite news</ref> (for dishes such as tom yum) and Cambodian cuisine (for the base paste "krueng").<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The leaves are used in Vietnamese cuisine to add fragrance to chicken dishes and to decrease the pungent odor when steaming snails. Also, in Vietnamese villages that harvest silkworms, the silkworms in the pupa stage are stir fried with the kaffir lime leaves.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The leaves are used in Indonesian cuisine (especially Balinese cuisine and Javanese cuisine) for foods such as soto ayam and are used along with Indonesian bay leaf for chicken and fish. They are also found in Malaysian and Burmese cuisines.<ref name="hutton">Template:Cite book</ref>

The rind (peel) is commonly used in Lao and Thai curry paste, adding an aromatic, astringent flavor.<ref name=thaitravel /> The zest of the fruit, referred to as combava,Template:Citation needed is used in creole cuisine to impart flavor in infused rums and rougails in Mauritius, Réunion, and Madagascar.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In Cambodia, the entire fruit is crystallized/candied for eating.<ref name=dyphon>Dy Phon Pauline, 2000, Plants Used In Cambodia, printed by Imprimerie Olympic, Phnom Penh</ref>

MedicinalEdit

The juice and rinds of the peel are used in traditional medicine in some Asian countries; the fruit's juice is often used in shampoo and is believed to kill head lice.<ref name="StaplesKristiansen1999"/>

Other usesEdit

The juice is used as a cleanser for clothing and hair in Thailand<ref name="BP-20171112"/> and occasionally in Cambodia. Lustral water mixed with slices of the fruit is used in religious ceremonies in Cambodia.

Makrut lime oil is used as raw material in many fields, including pharmaceutical, agronomic, food, sanitary, cosmetic, and perfume industries. It is also used extensively in aromatherapy and as an essential ingredient in various cosmetic and beauty products.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

  • Fish stuffed with Thai herbs.jpg

    Striped snakehead fish stuffed with C. hystrix and lemongrass in preparation for steaming

  • Flickr - cyclonebill - Tom yam.jpg

    C. hystrix leaves floating in tom yum

  • Citrus hystrix DC. (AM AK305877-3).jpg

    Fruit longitudinal section

  • Combava Rind Madagascar.jpg

    Dried fruit rinds

  • Combava Powder Madagascar.jpg

    Powdered fruit rind, used in Malagasy cuisine

  • Phanaeng kai.jpg

    Cut leaf strips on chicken phanaeng

  • 2022.08-516-248ap1 Large bags with Citrus hystrix leaves for sale in Phou Puy Wholesale Vegetable Market in Battambang, Cambodia sat27aug2022-1516h.jpg

    C. hystrix leaves for sale in Phou Puy Wholesale Vegetable Market in Battambang, Cambodia (August 2022)

CultivationEdit

File:Kaffir Lime (Citrus hystrix) 1.jpg
Small C. hystrix shrub in pot

C. hystrix is grown worldwide in suitable climates as a garden shrub for home fruit production. It is well suited to container gardens and for large garden pots on patios, terraces, and in conservatories.

Main constituentsEdit

The compound responsible for the characteristic aroma was identified as (–)-(S)-citronellal, which is contained in the leaf oil up to 80 percent; minor components include citronellol (10 percent), nerol and limonene.

From a stereochemical point of view, it is remarkable that makrut lime leaves contain only the (S) stereoisomer of citronellal, whereas its enantiomer, (+)-(R)-citronellal is found in both lemon balm and (to a lesser degree) lemon grass, (however, citronellal is only a trace component in the latter's essential oil).

Makrut lime fruit peel contains an essential oil comparable to lime fruit peel oil; its main components are limonene and β-pinene.<ref name=Ng/><ref name="kasuan">Template:Cite journal</ref>

ToxicityEdit

C. hystrix contains significant quantities of furanocoumarins, in both the peel and the pulp.<ref name="Dugrand-Judek et al. 2015">Template:Cite journal</ref> Furanocoumarins are known to cause phytophotodermatitis,<ref name="McGovern and Barkley 2000">Template:Cite journal</ref> a potentially severe skin inflammation. Cases of phytophotodermatitis induced by external use of C. hystrix have been reported.<ref name="Koh and Ong 1999">Template:Cite journal</ref>

See alsoEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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