Deme

Template:Short description {{#invoke:other uses|otheruses}}

File:AGMA Pinakia.jpg

Pinakia, identification tablets (name, father's name, deme) used for tasks like jury selection, Museum at the Ancient Agora of Athens

In Ancient Greece, a deme or Template:Transliteration (Template:Langx, plural: demoi, δήμοι) was a suburb or a subdivision of Athens and other city-states. Demes as simple subdivisions of land in the countryside existed in the 6th century BC and earlier, but did not acquire particular significance until the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 BC. In those reforms, enrollment in the citizen-lists of a deme became the requirement for citizenship; prior to that time, citizenship had been based on membership in a phratry, or family group. At this same time, demes were established in the main city of Athens itself, where they had not previously existed; in all, at the end of Cleisthenes' reforms, Athens was divided into 139 demes.<ref name=T76>, Template:Harvnb</ref> Three other demes were created subsequently: Berenikidai (224/223 BC), Apollonieis (201/200 BC), and Antinoeis (AD 126/127). The establishment of demes as the fundamental units of the state weakened the gene, or aristocratic family groups, that had dominated the phratries.<ref>J.V. Fine, The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History</ref>

A deme functioned to some degree as a polis in miniature, and indeed some demes, such as Eleusis and Acharnae, were in fact significant towns. Each deme had a demarchos who supervised its affairs; various other civil, religious, and military functionaries existed in various demes. Demes held their own religious festivals and collected and spent revenue.<ref>David Whitehead, "Deme" from the Oxford Classical Dictionary, Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, ed.</ref>

Demes were combined within the same area to make trittyes, larger population groups, which in turn were combined to form the ten tribes, or phylai, of Athens. Each tribe contained one trittys from each of three regions: the city, the coast, and the inland area.

Cleisthenes' reforms and modifications

First period: 508 – 307/306 BC

File:CarteAttiqueApresClisthene.jpg

The division of the Athenian city-state (polis) into urban (pink), inland (green), and coastal (blue) zones by Cleisthenes

Cleisthenes divided the landscape in three zones—urban (asty), coastal (paralia) and inland (mesogeia)—and the 139 demes were organized into 30 groups called trittyes ("thirds"), ten for each of the zones and into ten tribes, or phylai, each composed of three trittyes, one from the coast, one from the city, and one from the inland area.

Cleisthenes also reorganized the Boule, created with 400 members under Solon, so that it had 500 members, 50 from each tribe, each deme having a fixed quota.

The ten tribes were named after legendary heroes and came to have an official order: Template:Ordered list

Second period: 307/306 – 224/223 BC

In 307/306 – 224/223 BC the system was reorganized with the creation of two Macedonian Phylai (XI. Antigonis and XII. Demetrias), named after Demetrius I of Macedon and Antigonus I Monophthalmus, and an increase in the membership of the Boule to 600. Each of the ten tribes, except Aiantis, provided three demes (not necessarily one for trittyes); the missing contribution of Aiantis was covered by two demes of Leontis and one from Aigeis.

Third period: 224/223 – 201/200 BC

The Egyptian Phyle XIII. Ptolemais, named after Ptolemy III Euergetes was created in 224/223 BC and the Boule was again increased, this time to 650 members, the twelve tribes giving each a demos. A new village was created and named Berenikidai after Ptolemy's wife Berenice II of Egypt.

Fourth period: 201/200 BC – 126/127 AD

In 201/200 BC the Macedonian Phylae were dissolved and the villages (except the two given to Ptolemais) went back to their original tribes. In the spring of 200 BC Tribe XIV. Attalis, named after Attalus I, was created following the same scheme used for the creation of the Egyptian Phyle: each tribe contributed a deme and a new deme, Apollonieis, was created in honour of Apollonis, wife of Attalus I of Pergamum. As a consequence there were again 12 tribes and 600 members of the Boule. From this period onward, quotas were no longer assigned to the demes for the 50 Boule members from each tribe.

Fifth period: 126/127 – third century

The last modification was the creation in 126/127 of XV. Hadrianis, named after the Emperor Hadrian, following the same scheme: each tribe contributed a deme and a new deme, Antinoeis, was created in honour of Hadrian's favourite, Antinous. Each tribe contributed 40 members to the Boule.

Representation in the Boule

In the first three periods there it a more detailed system of fixed quotas which essentially remained unchanged. There is no evidence for a single general reapportionment of quotas within each of the first three periods, while there are evident small quota-variations between the first and the second periods.<ref name=T56>Template:Harvnb</ref>

More precisely in:

307/306 BC, 24 demes increased of 1 bouleutes, 13 of 2, 5 or 3, 6 of 4 and 1 (Lower Paiania) of 11 and there is not a single example of a decreased quota.<ref name=T59>Template:Harvnb</ref>

224/223 BC 4 demes increased of 1 bouletes

As regards the last two periods, the material illustrates the complete collapse of the quota-system from 201/200 BC.<ref name=T61>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Spurious and Late Roman demes

Some deme lists suggest extensions to the list of 139+3 Demes by adding 43 additional names, some of which have been considered by scholars as Attic demes.<ref>Graes, Phegaia, Kaletea (III); Rhakidai, Kyrteidai (V); Phyle B, Perrihidai (VI); Kikynna B, Trinemeia B, Sypalettos B (VII); Agriadai, Pol(--), Anakaia B, Amymone, Sphendale (VIII); Kykala, Perrhidai, Thyrgonidai, Titakidai, Petalidai, Psaphis (IX); Atene B, De(--), Lekkon, Leukopyra, Ergadeis, Phyrrhinesioi, Malainai, Pentele (X).</ref> The criticism performed by John S. Traill<ref name=T8196>Template:Harvnb</ref> shows that 24 are the result of error, ancient<ref>Anakaia B, Phegaieis B, Graes, Pol(--)</ref> or modern,<ref>Agriadai</ref> or of misinterpretation<ref>De(--), Salamis, Kaletea, Kikynna B, Atene B, Ikaroin, Amphitrope B, Phyle B, Sypalettos B, Trinemeia B, Coastal Lamptrai, Chastieis, Chelidonia, Echelidai, Gephyreis, Lekkon, Oisia, Rhakidai, Sporgilos.</ref> and 19<ref>Hyporeia,Thirgonidai, Titakidai, Perrhidai, Petalidai, Eunostidai, Klopidai, Melainai, Sphendale, Pentale, Psaphis, Akyaia, Amymone, Ergadeis, Kykala, Kyrteidai, Leukopyra, Phy(r)rhinesioi, Semachidai B,</ref> are well known chiefly from inscriptions of the second and third centuries AD, i.e. in the fifth period, and thus for political purposes they were originally dependent on legitimate Cleisthenic demes.

Homonymous and divided demes

There were<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> six pairs of homonymous demes:

• Halai Araphenides (VII.Kekropis) and Halai Aixonides (II.Aigeis)
• Oion Dekeleikon (VIII.Hippothontis; later XIII.Ptolemais, XIV.Attalis) and Oion Kerameikon (IV.Leontis; affiliated with XII.Demetrias in the Macedonian period)
• Eitea: there were two demes of that name, but no modifier is known. One is associated to V.Acamantis, later XI.Antigonis and XV.Hadrianis; the other is associated to X.Antiochis
• Oinoe and Oinoe: again no modifier is known; one deme was associated to VIII.Hippothontis, later XII.Demetrias and XIII.Ptolemais; the other was associated to IX.Aiantis, later XIV.Attalis and XV.Hadrianis.
• Kolonai: again no modifier is known; one deme was associated to IV.Leontis; the other to X.Antiochis, later XI.Antigonis and XIII.Ptolemais.
• Eroiadai: again no modifier is known for these two demes associated to VIII.Hippothontis and X.Antiochis.

There were six divided demes, one composed of three parts:

• Agryle, Upper Agryle and Lower Agryle (I.Erechtheis); one of them, but there is no prosopographical information for identifying which, was transferred to XI.Antigonis and went back at the end of the Macedonian period; later one of them (again it is uncertain which) was transferred to XIV.Attalis.
• Lamptrai, Upper Lamptrai and Coastal/Lower Lamptrai (I.Erechtheis); Upper Lamptrai was transferred to XI.Antigonis and went back at the end of the Macedonian period.
• Pergase, Upper and Lower (I.Erechtheis); one of them (no prosopographical information allows to decide which) was transferred to XI.Antigonis and went back at the end of the Macedonian period.
• Ankyle: no special designations of either section are preserved, although they are presumed to have the regular Upper and Lower forms. One section, perhaps Upper Ankale, was transferred to XI.Antigonis and went back at the end of the Macedonian period.
• Paiania, Upper Paiania and Lower Paiania (III.Pandionis); Upper Paiania, was transferred to XI.Antigonis and went back at the end of the Macedonian period.
• Potamos has three sections, Upper Potamos, Lower Potamos and Potamos Deiradiotes (IV.Leontes); during the Macedonian period, Potamos Deiradiotes belonged to XI.Antigonis and Lower Potamos to XII.Demetrias.

List of Athenian demes according to tribes/phylai (φυλαί)

The ten Cleisthenic tribes

lang}})<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Deme	#<ref name=Q1>Quota in the first period</ref>	#<ref name=Q2>Quota in the second period</ref>	#<ref name=Q3>Quota in the third period</ref>	Notes
				city
Upper Agryle	2	3	3	One deme to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods and to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period
Lower Agryle	2
Euonymon	10	12	12
Themakos	1	1		to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period
				coast
Anagyrous	6	8	8
Kedoi	2	2	2
Upper Lamptrai	5			to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Coastal Lamptrai	9	10	10
Pambotadai	1(0)	1	2	to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Kephisia (?)				inland
Kephisia	6	8	8
Upper Pergase	2	3	3	One deme to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Lower Pergase	2
Phegous	1	1	1
Sybridai	0(1)	1	1
Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	#<ref name=Q3/>	Notes

lang}})<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes
			city
Upper Ankyle	1		to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Lower Ankyle	1	1
Bate	1(2)	1
Diomeia	1		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods
Erikeia	1	2
Hestiaia	1	1
Kollytos	3	4
Kolonos	2	2
			coast
Araphen	2	2
Halai Araphenides	5	9
Otryne	1	1
Phegaia	3(4)	3(4)	to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Philaidai	3	3
Epakria			inland
Erchia	7(6)	11
Gargettos	4		to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Ikarion	5(4)		to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods and to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period
Ionidai	2(1)	2
Kydantidai	1(2)	1(2)	to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period
Myrrhinoutta	1	1
Plotheia	1	2
Teithras	4	4
Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes

lang}})<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	#<ref name=Q3/>	Notes
Kydathenaion				city
Kydathenaion	12(11)			to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Myrrhinous				coast
Angele	2(3)	4	4
Myrrhinous	6	8	8
Prasiai	3	3	3
Probalinthos	5	5	5	to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period
Steiria	3	3	4
Paiania				inland
Konthyle	1	1		to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period
Kytheros	2(1)			to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Oa	4	4	4	to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Upper Paiania	1			to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Lower Paiania	11	22	22
Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	#<ref name=Q3/>	Notes

lang}})<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	#<ref name=Q3/>	Notes
Skambonidai				city
Halimous	3	3	3
Kettos	3	3(4)	3
Leukonoion	3	5	5
Oion Kerameikon	1			to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods
Skambonidai	3	4	4	to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Upper Potamos	2	2	2
Lower Potamos	1			to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods
Phrearrhioi				coast
Deiradiotai	2			to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Potamioi Deiradiotai	2			to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Phrearrhioi	9	9	10
Sounion	4	6	6	to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period
Hekale (?)				inland
Aithalidai	2			to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Cholleidai	2	5	5
Eupyridai	2	2	2
Hekale	1	1		to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period
Hybadai	2	2(1)	2
Kolonai	2	2	2
Kropidai	1	1	1
Paionidai	3	3	3
Pelekes	2	2	2
Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	#<ref name=Q3/>	Notes

lang}})<ref name="Traill1975V">Template:Harvnb</ref>

Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes
Cholargos			city
Cholargos	4	6
Eiresidai	1	2
Hermos	2	2
Iphistiadae	1	1
Kerameis	6	6
Thorikos			coast
Kephale	9	12
Poros	3		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods
Thorikos	5(6)	6
Sphettos			inland
Eitea	2		to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods and to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Hagnous	5		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods and to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period
Kikynna	2	3
Prospalta	5	5	to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period
Sphettos	5	7
Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes

lang}})<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes
Lakiadai			city
Boutadai	1	1	to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period
Epikephisia	1(2)	1
Hippotomadai	1		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods
Lakiadai	2	3
Lousia	1	1
Perithoidai	3	3
Ptelea	1	1
Tyrmeidai	1(0)	1	to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period
Thria			coast
Kothokidai	2(1)		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third period
Oe	6(7)	6
Phyle	2		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third period
Thria	7	8	to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Pedion			inland
Acharnae	22	25
Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes

lang}})<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes
Melite (?)			city
Daidalidai	1		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods and to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Melite	7		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods
Xypete	7		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods
Aixone(?)			coast
Aixone	8	12
Halai Aixonides	6	10
			inland
Athmonon	6	10	to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period
Epieikidai	1	1(0)
Phlya	7	9	to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period
Pithos	2(3)	4
Sypalettos	2	2	<ref>Meritt, 1961, pp.227-230 suggests that Sypalettos could be temporarily belonged to XIV.Attalis in 145; the argument would justify the conflicting facts that the current archon, Epikrates, was from Sypalettos and that archonship, in the secretary-cycle, should be assigned to Attalis; in connection he pointed that the son of the eponym, Attalos II, was of the deme Sypalettos and that a similar reletionship between phylai and members of the family of the eponym is proved by Ptolemy V Epiphanes, grandson of Ptolemy III and member of XIII.Ptolemais and by Hadrian which was accepted into the deme of Besa.</ref>
Trinemeia	2	2
Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes

lang}})<ref name="Traill1975V" />

Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes
Peiraieus			city
Hamaxanteia	2	2
Keiriadai	2	2
Koile	3		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods
Korydallos	1	1	to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period
Peiraieus	9	10
Thymaitadai	2	2
Eleusis			coast
Acherdous	1	1
Auridai	1		to XI.Antigonis in the second and third periods
Azenia	2	2
Elaious	1	1	to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Eleusis	11	12
Kopros	2	2
Oinoe	2		to XII.Demetrias in the second and to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period
Dekeleia (?)			inland
Anakaia	3	3
Eroiadai	1	2
Dekeleia	4	6
Oion Dekeleikon	3	3	to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period and to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period
Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes

lang}})

Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	#<ref name=Q3/>	Notes
Phaleron (?)			city
Phaleron	9	9	13
Thorikos			coast
Marathon	10	10	13
Oinoe	4	4	6	to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period and to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Rhamnous	8	8	12
Trikorynthos	3	3	6	to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Aphidna (?)			inland
Aphidna	16	16		to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period and to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	#<ref name=Q3/>	Notes

lang}})<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes
Alopeke			city
Alopeke	10	12
Anaphlistos			coast
Aigilia	6	7	to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period
Amphitrope	2	3
Anaphlystos	10	11
Atene	3		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods and to XIV.Attalis in the fourth period
Besa	2	2	to XV.Hadrianis in the fifth period
Thorai	4		to XII.Demetrias in the second and third periods
Pallene			inland
Eitea	2(1)	2
Eroiadai	1	1
Kolonai	2		to XI.Antigonis in the second period and to XIII.Ptolemais in the third period
Krioa	1	2
Pallene	6(7)	9
Semachidai	1	1
Deme	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	Notes

The Macedonian tribes

XI. Antigonis<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Deme	Former phyle	Trittys	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>
Lower Agryle	Erachtheis	city	3	3
Upper Lamptrai	Erachtheis	coast	5	5
Lower Pergase	Erachtheis	inland	2	2
Upper Ankyle	Aigeis	city	1	1
Ikarion	Aigeis	inland	5	6
Kydathenaion	Pandionis	city	12	12
Kytheros	Pandionis	inland	2	2
Upper Paiania	Pandionis	inland	1	1
Aithalidai	Leontis	inland	2	2
Deiradiotai	Leontis	coast	2	2
Potamos Deiradiotes	Leontis	coast	2	2
Eitea	Akamantis	inland	2	2
Auridai	Hippothontis	coast	1	1
Kolonai	Antiochis	inland	2	2

XII. Demetrias<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Deme	Former phyle	Trittys	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>
Diomeia	Aigeis	city	1	1
Oion Kerameikon	Leontis	city	1	1
Lower Potamos	Leontis	coast	1	2
Hagnous	Akamantis	inland	5	5
Poros	Akamantis	coast	3	3
Hippotomadai	Oineis	city	1	1
Kothokidai	Oineis	coast	2	2
Phyle	Oineis	coast	2	6
Daidalidai	Kekropis	city	1	1
Melite	Kekropis	city	7	7
Xypete	Kekropis	city	7	7
Koile	Hippothontis	city	3	3
Oinoe	Hippothontis	coast	2	2
Atene	Antiochis	coast	3	4
Thorai	Antiochis	coast	4	5

The later tribes

XIII. Ptolemais<ref>Template:Harvnb. Ptolemais was fifth in the tribal order during the periods it existed; the tribes from Acamantis to Antiochis were all moved back in the tribal order by one place.</ref>

Deme	Former phyle	Trittys	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	#<ref name=Q3/>
Kolonai	Antigonis	inland	2	2	2
Oinoe	Demetrias	coast	2	2	2
Themakos	Erechteis	city	1	1	1
Kydantidai	Aigeis	inland	1 (2)	1 (2)	1
Konthyle	Pandionis	inland	1	1	1
Hekale	Leontis	inland	1	1	1
Prospalta	Akamantis	inland	5	5	5
Boutadai	Oineis	city	1	1	1
Phlya	Kekropis	inland	6	9	9
Oion Dekeleikon	Hippothontis	inland	3	3	3
Aphidna	Aiantis	inland	16	16	16
Aigilia	Antiochis	coast	6	7	7
Berenikidai		new			1

XIV. Attalis<ref>Template:Harvnb; Attalis was twelfth in the tribal order during the period it existed.</ref>

Deme	Former phyle	Trittys	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	#<ref name=Q3/>
Lower Agrile	Erechteis	city	3	3	3
Ikarion	Aigeis	inland	5 (4)	6	6
Probalinthos	Pandionis	coast	5	5	5
Sounion	Leontis	coast	4	6	6
Oion Dekailekon	Ptolemais	inlamd	3	3	3
Hagnous	Akamantis	inland	5	5	5
Tyrmeidai	Oineis	city	1(0)	1	1
Athmonon	Kekropis	inland	6	10	10
Korydallos	Hippothontis	city	3	3	3
Oinoe	Aiantis	coast	4	4	6
Atene	Antiochis	coast	3	4	4
Apollonieis		new

XV. Hadrianis<ref>Template:Harvnb; Hadrianis was thirteenth in the tribal order during the period it existed.</ref>

Deme	Former phyle	Trittys	#<ref name=Q1/>	#<ref name=Q2/>	#<ref name=Q3/>
Pambotadai	Erechteis	coast	1 (0)	1 (0)	2
Phegaia	Aigeis	coast	3 (4)	3 (4)	4
Oa	Pandionis	inland	4	4	4
Skambonidai	Leontis	city	3	4	4
Aphidna	Ptolemais	inlamd	16	16	16
Eitea	Akamantis	inland	2	2	2
Thria	Oineis	coast	7	8	8
Daidalidai	Kekropis	city	1	1	1
Elaious	Hippothontis	coast	1	1	1
Trikorynthos	Aiantis	coast	3	3	6
Besa	Antiochis	coast	2	2	2
Oinoe	Attalis	coast	4	4	6
Antinoeis		new

The ten tribes of Thurii

When the city was settled under the support of Pericles and the command of Lampon and Xenocritus the population was organized in ten tribes, following the Athenian organization: there were tribes for the population of 1. Arcadia, 2. Achaea, 3. Elis, 4. Boeotia, 5. Delphi, 6. Dorians, 7. Ionians, 8. population of Euboea, 9. the islands and 10. Athenians.<ref>Fritz Schachermeyr, Perikles, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart–Berlin–Köln–Mainz 1969</ref>

Later usage

Template:Expand section The term "deme" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) survived into the Hellenistic and Roman eras. By the time of the Byzantine Empire, the term was used to refer to one of the four chariot racing factions, the Reds, the Blues, the Greens and the Whites.

In modern Greece, the term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is used to denote one of the municipalities.

References

• Template:Cite book
• Fine, John V. A. The Ancient Greeks: A critical history (Harvard University Press, 1983). Template:ISBN.
• Hornblower, Simon, and Anthony Spawforth, ed., The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 2003). Template:ISBN.
• Meritt, B. D. The Athenian Year. Berkeley, 1961.
• Suzanne, Bernard (1998). plato-dialogues.org, "Attic Tribes and Demes". Retrieved August 1, 2006.
• Whitehead, David. The Demes of Attica 508/7–ca. 250 BC: A Political and Social Study (Princeton University Press, 1986).