Domus Aurea
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The Domus Aurea (Latin, "Golden House") was a vast landscaped complex built by the Emperor Nero largely on the Oppian Hill in the heart of ancient Rome after the great fire in 64 AD had destroyed a large part of the city.<ref name=roth>Roth (1993)</ref>
It replaced and extended his Domus Transitoria that he had built as his first palace complex on the site.<ref>Andrea Carandini, Le case del potere nell'antica Roma, Roma-Bari, Laterza, 2010, Template:ISBN p 251</ref><ref>Filippo Coarelli, Roma, Bari & Roma, Laterza, 2012 p 228</ref>
HistoryEdit
Construction began after the great fire of 64 and was nearly completed before Nero's death in 68, a remarkably short time for such an enormous project.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Nero took great interest in every detail of the project, according to Tacitus,<ref>Annals XV 42</ref> and oversaw the engineer-architects, Celer and Severus, who were also responsible for the attempted navigable canal with which Nero hoped to link Misenum with Lake Avernus.<ref>Warden 1981:272.</ref><ref name=":5">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Emperor Otho<ref>Suetonius, Otho 7.1</ref> and possibly Titus allotted money to finish at least the structure on the Oppian Hill; this continued to be inhabited, notably by emperor Vitellius in 69 but only after falling ill,<ref>Cassius Dio, LXV, 4.1.</ref> until it was destroyed in a fire under Trajan in 104.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
A symbol of decadence that caused severe embarrassment to Nero's successors, the Domus Aurea was stripped of its marble, jewels, and ivory within a decade.<ref name=":2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Although the Oppian villa continued to be inhabited for some years, soon after Nero's death other parts of the palace and grounds, encompassing 2.6 km2 (c. 1 mi2), were filled with earth and built over: the Baths of Titus were already being built on part of the site, probably the private baths, in 79 AD.<ref name=":3">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> On the site of the lake, in the middle of the palace grounds, Vespasian built the Flavian Amphitheatre, which could be flooded at will,<ref name=":7">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> with the Colossus of Nero beside it.<ref name=roth/> The Baths of Trajan,<ref name=roth/><ref>Smithsonian magazine, October 2020</ref> and the Temple of Venus and Roma were also built on the site. Within 40 years, the palace was obliterated. Paradoxically, this ensured the wall paintings' survival by protecting them from moisture.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name="theintrepidguide">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
RediscoveryEdit
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When a young Roman inadvertently fell through a cleft in the Esquiline hillside at the end of the 15th century, he found himself in a strange cave or grotto filled with painted figures.<ref name=":2" /> Soon the young artists of Rome were having themselves let down on boards knotted to ropes to see for themselves.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Fourth Style frescoes that were uncovered then have faded now, but the effect of these freshly rediscovered grotesque<ref>Because of their underground origin, these works were referred to as grotteschi, ("belonging to caves") and their strangeness changed the meaning of the word.</ref> decorations (Template:Langx) was electrifying in the early Renaissance, which was just arriving in Rome.
When Raphael and Michelangelo crawled underground and were let down shafts to study them, the paintings were a revelation of the true world of antiquity.<ref name=":0" /> Beside the graffiti signatures of later tourists like Casanova and the Marquis de Sade scratched into a fresco inches apart,<ref>British Archaeology June 1999</ref>Template:Verify source<ref name=":6">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> are the autographs of Domenico Ghirlandaio, Martin van Heemskerck, and Filippino Lippi.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Four of the frescos were removed in 1668; the only known surviving fresco of these is currently in the possession of the Ashmolean Museum (not currently on display).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The frescoes' effect on Renaissance artists was instant and profound (it can be seen most obviously in Raphael's decoration for the loggias in the Vatican), and the white walls, delicate swags, and bands of frieze—framed reserves containing figures or landscapes—have returned at intervals ever since, notably in late 18th century Neoclassicism,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> making Famulus one of the most influential painters in the history of art.
20th century to presentEdit
Discovery of the pavilion led to the arrival of moisture starting the slow, inevitable process of decay; humidity sometimes reaches 90% inside the Domus.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite news</ref> Heavy rain was blamed for the collapse of a chunk of ceiling.<ref name=Romey>Romey (see sources)</ref> The presence of trees in the park above was causing further damage.<ref name="Donati">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":4" />
The weight of earth on the Domus was also causing a problem.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Increasing concerns about the condition of the building resulted in its closing at the end of 2005 for further restoration work.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The complex was partially reopened in 2007, but closed in 2008 because of safety concerns.<ref name=":0"/>
On March 30, 2010, Template:Convert of the vault of a gallery collapsed.<ref name="theintrepidguide"/>
The Domus reopened in 2014.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ConstructionEdit
Suetonius claims this of Nero and the Domus Aurea:
When the edifice was finished in this style and he dedicated it, he deigned to say nothing more in the way of approval than that he had at last begun to live like a human being.<ref name=suet31>Suetonius Life of Nero, 31</ref>
The Domus Aurea complex covered parts of the slopes of the Palatine, Oppian, and Caelian hills,<ref name="Donati"/> with an artificial lake in the marshy valley. The area of the estate can only be approximated, as much of it has not been excavated. Some scholars place it at more than Template:Convert,<ref>Roth: 227</ref> while others estimate its size to have been less than Template:Convert.<ref>Warden 1981:271</ref> Suetonius describes the complex as "ruinously prodigal" as it included groves of trees, pastures with flocks, vineyards, and an artificial lake—rus in urbe, "countryside in the city".<ref name=":9">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Nero's main residence remained the imperial palaces of the Palatine, while the pavilion on the Oppian was used when he preferred to remain in the horti, and the buildings with vestibulum and stagnum were used for feasts, where he received the people of Rome.<ref>A. Carandini, The houses of power in ancient Rome, Rome-Bari, Laterza, 2010, Template:ISBN p250</ref>
To supply his lake in the valley between the Palatine, Oppian, and Caelian, Nero diverted water from the Aqua Claudia by a specially built branch aqueduct known as the Arcus Neroniani.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This extended 2 km west from the Claudia to the southern side of the Caelian Hill.
He also built a nymphaeum on the eastern side of the Caelian, visible across the valley from the pavilion, and against the eastern wall of the unfinished Temple of Claudius.<ref>Lanciani, The ruins and excavations of ancient Rome, Houghton Mifflin, New York, 1897 p351</ref><ref>Richardson, 1992; p. 119</ref> The nymphaeum was made up of tiered columns and semicircular and rectangular niches; it would have contained a large sculptural group at the centre. Archaeological excavations confirm that the water cascaded from the top of the nymphaeum down into 4 basins. The aqueduct fed the nymphaeum and ultimately the lake.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Nero also commissioned from the Greek Zenodorus a colossal 35.5 m (120 RF) high bronze statue of him, the Colossus Neronis.<ref name=suet31/><ref name=":2"/> Pliny the Elder, however, puts its height at only 30.3 m (106.5 RF).<ref>Pliny xxxiv.39</ref> The statue was placed just outside the main palace entrance at the terminus of the Via Appia<ref name=suet31/> in a large atrium of porticoes that divided the city from the private villa.<ref>Boethius 1960:110</ref> This statue may have represented Nero as the sun god Sol, as Pliny saw some resemblance.<ref>Pliny xxxiv.46</ref> This idea is widely accepted among scholars,<ref>Claridge 1998: 271</ref> but some are convinced that Nero was not identified with Sol while he was alive.<ref name=boet111>Boethius 1960:111</ref> The face of the statue was modified shortly after Nero's death during Vespasian’s reign to make it truly a statue of Sol.<ref name=":4"/><ref name=boet111/> Hadrian moved it, with the help of the architect Decrianus and 24 elephants,<ref>Spartianus Hadrian xix</ref> to a position next to the Flavian Amphitheater. This building took the name "Colosseum" in the Middle Ages, after the statue nearby, or, as some historians believe, because of the sheer size of the building.<ref name=":9" />
Palace on the PalatineEdit
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The main part of the palace was probably on the Palatine Hill and a large and brilliantly decorated set of rooms has been located in the central part of the hill under the Palace of Domitian. This site was excavated in 1721 when considerable damage was done during the excavations. The lower floors contained sunken gardens, two pavilions and an art gallery.
In one of these rooms is a rich marble floor found under the oval fountain room of Domitian's Cenatio Iovis, and a rich nymphaeum with marble columns and bronze capitals. Today one corner of the nymphaeum has been rebuilt.
The cryptoporticus of Nero that connected the palace with the nearby Domus Tiberiana was also part of the complex. It is 130 m long with mosaic floors and elaborate stucco ceiling decoration with vegetal elements and cupids. It lies beneath the Horti Farnesiani along one side of the Domus Tiberiana.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The possible remains of Nero's rotating banquet hall and its underlying mechanism were unveiled by archaeologists on September 29, 2009.<ref>Marta Falconi (AP): Nero's Rotating Hall Unveiled in Rome by Marta Falconi, September 29, 2009, USA Today</ref>
Today, one of the best-preserved parts of the palace is the block of 50 communal toilets which would have been used by slaves and workers in Nero's time.<ref name=":8">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Pavilion on the Oppian HillEdit
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The Golden House building (pavilion) on the Oppian Hill (part of the Esquiline Hill) was extended from Nero's earlier Domus Transitoria and designed mainly as a place of entertainment, as shown by the presence of 300 rooms with few sleeping quarters.<ref name=":2" />
Rooms sheathed in dazzling polished white marble with paintings above had richly varied floor plans, complete with niches and exedras that concentrated or dispersed the daylight.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> There were pools in the floors and fountains splashing in the corridors.
The building plan is divided into two parts: the western one is simple and classic in design, characterised by perpendicular axes and built around a large rectangular courtyard, which opened towards the valley and the lake. The eastern part is of a much richer design<ref>A. Carandini, The houses of power in ancient Rome, Rome-Bari, Laterza, 2010, Template:ISBN p287</ref><ref>Filippo Coarelli, Guida archeologica di Roma, Verona, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, 1984 p229</ref> with two of the principal dining rooms flanking an octagonal court, surmounted by a dome with a giant central oculus to let in light.<ref name=roth/> It was an early use of Roman concrete construction.
It also had an upper floor on the same level as the hill against which it rested (to the north).<ref>Fabiola Fraioli, Regione III. Isis et Serapis, in Andrea Carandini (a cura di), Atlante di Roma antica, Milano, Mondatori Electa, 2012, pp. 307-322, Template:ISBN.p313</ref> The surviving parts of this floor are preserved only to a height of 30/60 cm, and the thickness of the walls was also reduced to 40/50 cm so that it was a much less monumental body than the lower floor.<ref>A. Carandini, The houses of power in ancient Rome, Rome-Bari, Laterza, 2010, Template:ISBN p288</ref>
During renovation works at the end of 2018, experts discovered a barrel-vaulted room (room 72) richly decorated with panthers, centaurs, the god Pan, and a sphinx, believed to have been built between 65 and 68 AD. The frescoes were of similar style to those in the cryptoporticus (room 92) which allows attribution to the so-called "A" workshop. <ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The octagonal roomEdit
The octagonal room was a masterpiece of Roman architecture and overlooked a xystus a track to watch gymnastic competitions, and the immense park. The lower part of the dome follows a pattern of octagonal segments (like Brunelleschi 's dome of S. Maria del Fiore in Florence), while the upper part assumes a circular shape.
This domed room was a triclinium, where the emperor manifested himself as divine, through the effects of light that the dome filtered, assimilating himself to the god Apollo. It was built on the model of the cenatio praecipua rotunda (dining room whose ceiling constantly revolved like the heavens) which Carandini and Fraioli position in the pavilion. The ceiling of the octagonal hall could probably rotate by means of a mechanism created by Celer and Severus and similar to a millstone which, hooked to the uncovered tracks along the edge of the central opening, was moved by slaves. Perfume was sprayed and rose petals were dropped on the assembled diners. According to some accounts, perhaps embellished by Nero's political enemies, on one occasion such quantities of rose petals were dropped that one unlucky guest was asphyxiated (a similar story is told of the emperor Elagabalus).<ref name=":2" />
On the sides of the octagonal room there were two apartments: the "room of Achilles in Skyros" and the "room of Hector and Andromache", judged from their paintings. The side spaces served both as passageways and as buttress elements for the dome; These spaces were accessed through large openings surmounted by brick courses. This was probably one of the models from which the famous dome of the Pantheon drew inspiration: it is in fact an early example of the use of the cementitious technique, which had been developed by the Romans from the second century BC for the development of large and articulated interior spaces.
DecorationEdit
The extensive gold leaf that gave the palace its name was not the only extravagant element of its decor: stuccoed ceilings were faced with semi-precious stones and ivory veneers, while the walls were frescoed, coordinating the decoration into different themes in each major group of rooms.<ref>Ball: 21</ref> Pliny the Elder watched it being built and mentions it in his Naturalis Historia.<ref>Pliny xxxvi.111</ref>
One innovation was destined to have an enormous influence on the art of the future: Nero placed mosaics, previously restricted to floors and gardens, in the vaulted ceilings. Only fragments have survived,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> but that technique was to be copied extensively, eventually ending up as a fundamental feature of Christian art: the apse mosaics that decorate so many churches in Rome, Ravenna, Sicily, and Constantinople.
Frescoes covered every surface that was not more richly finished. The main artist was Famulus (or Fabulus, or Amulius according to some sources).<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":4" /> Fresco technique, working on damp plaster, demands a speedy and sure touch: Famulus and assistants from his studio covered a spectacular amount of wall area with frescoes. Pliny, in his Natural History, recounts how Famulus went for only a few hours each day to the Golden House, to work while the light was best. He wrote:
More recently, lived Amulius, a grave and serious personage, but a painter in the florid style. By this artist there was a Minerva, which had the appearance of always looking at the spectators, from whatever point it was viewed. He only painted a few hours each day, and then with the greatest gravity, for he always kept the toga on, even when in the midst of his implements. The Golden Palace of Nero was the prison-house of this artist's productions, and hence it is that there are so few of them to be seen elsewhere.<ref>Pliny Chap xxxvii, p.6272</ref>
See alsoEdit
NotesEdit
SourcesEdit
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- Pliny, C. Secundus (c. 77). Natural History.
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- Spartianus, Aelius (117-284). Historia Augusta: The Life of Hadrian.
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External linksEdit
- Great Buildings on-line: Domus Aurea
- Virtual reconstruction in 3D of the Domus Aurea
| Preceded by {{#if:Domus Augustana|Domus Augustana|—}} |
Landmarks of Rome{{#if:Domus Aurea| Domus Aurea}} |
Succeeded by {{#if:Domus Transitoria|Domus Transitoria|—}} |