Donepezil

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Donepezil, sold under the brand name Aricept among others, is a medication used to treat dementia of the Alzheimer's type.<ref name="Aricept FDA label" /><ref name="Adlarity FDA label" /><ref name=AHFS2019/> It appears to result in a small benefit in mental function and ability to function.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Use, however, has not been shown to change the progression of the disease.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Treatment should be stopped if no benefit is seen.<ref name=BNF76/><ref name=NICE2018>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is taken by mouth or via a transdermal patch.<ref name="Aricept FDA label" /><ref name="Adlarity FDA label" /><ref name=AHFS2019/>

Donepezil is a centrally acting reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor and structurally unrelated to other anticholinesterase agents.<ref name=AHFS2019/><ref name=Kum2020/> Common side effects include nausea, trouble sleeping, aggression, diarrhea, feeling tired, and muscle cramps.<ref name=AHFS2019>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=BNF76>Template:Cite book</ref> Serious side effects may include abnormal heart rhythms, urinary incontinence, and seizures.<ref name=AHFS2019/>

Donepezil was approved for medical use in the United States in 1996.<ref name=AHFS2019/> It is available as a generic medication.<ref name=BNF76/> In 2022, it was the 146th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3Template:Nbspmillion prescriptions.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Medical uses

Alzheimer's disease

There is no evidence that donepezil or other similar agents alter the course or progression of Alzheimer's disease. Six-to-twelve-month controlled studies have shown modest benefits in cognition or behavior.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> The UK National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) recommends donepezil as an option in the management of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease.<ref name=NICE2011>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The person should, however, be reviewed frequently and if there is no significant benefit it should be stopped.<ref name=NICE2011/> In 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also approved donepezil for treatment of mild, moderate and severe dementia in Alzheimer's disease.<ref>Template:Cite press release</ref>

Other

• Lewy body dementia: Some studies have shown benefits of donepezil for the treatment of cognitive and behavioral symptoms in Lewy body dementia.<ref name=Kum2020/>
• Traumatic brain injury: Some research suggests an improvement in memory dysfunction in patients with traumatic brain injury with donepezil use.<ref name=Kum2020/>
• Vascular dementia: Studies have shown that donepezil may temporarily improve cognition in patients with vascular dementia but not overall global functioning.<ref name=Kum2020/>
• Dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease: Some evidence suggests that donepezil can temporarily improve cognition, executive function, and global status in Parkinson’s disease dementia.<ref name=Kum2020>Template:Cite book</ref>

Adverse effects

In clinical trials the most common adverse events leading to discontinuation were nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting.<ref name="Aricept FDA label" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other side effects included difficulty sleeping, muscle cramps and loss of appetite. Most side effects were observed in patients taking the 23 mg dose compared to 10 mg or lower doses. Side effects are mild and transient in most patients, lasting up to three weeks and usually improved even with continued use.<ref name="Aricept FDA label"/><ref name=Kum2020/>

Donepezil, like other cholinesterase inhibitors, can cause nightmares due to enhanced activation of the visual association cortex during REM sleep.<ref name=Kum2020/> Dosing donepezil in the morning can reduce the frequency of nightmares.<ref name=Kum2020/>

Precautions

Donepezil should be used with caution in people with heart disease, cardiac conduction disturbances, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, severe cardiac arrhythmia and sick sinus syndrome.<ref name="Aricept FDA label"/>

People with peptic ulcer disease or taking NSAIDs should use with caution because increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding was noted.<ref name="Aricept FDA label"/> Slow heart beat and fainting in people with heart problems were also seen. These symptoms may appear more frequent when initiating treatment or increasing the donepezil dose. Although occurrence of seizures is rare, people who have a predisposition to seizures should be treated with caution.<ref name="Aricept FDA label" />

If daily donepezil has suspended for 7 days or less, restarting at the same dose is recommended, while if the suspension lasts longer than 7 days, retitrate from 5 mg daily is suggested.<ref name="Aricept 2019">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Mechanism of action

Donepezil binds and reversibly inhibits enzymes called cholinesterases, especially acetylcholinesterase, thus inhibiting hydrolysis of acetylcholine. This increases acetylcholine concentrations at cholinergic synapses.<ref name=Kum2020/>

The precise mechanism of action of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer's disease is not fully understood. Certainly, Alzheimer's disease involves a substantial loss of the elements of the cholinergic system and it is generally accepted that the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease are related to this cholinergic deficit, particularly in the cerebral cortex and other areas of the brain.<ref name="pmid63862">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="pmid9316159">Template:Cite journal</ref>

In addition to its actions as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, donepezil has been found to act as a potent agonist of the σ₁ receptor (K_i = 14.6 nM), and has been shown to produce specific antiamnestic effects in animals mainly via this action.<ref name="MauriceSu2009">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Some noncholinergic mechanisms have also been proposed.<ref name=Kum2020/> Donepezil upregulates the nicotinic receptors in the cortical neurons, adding to neuroprotective activity.<ref name=Kum2020/> It inhibits voltage-activated sodium currents reversibly and delays rectifier potassium currents and fast transient potassium currents, although this action is unlikely to contribute to clinical effects.<ref name=Kum2020/>

Stereochemistry

Donepezil medications are racemates.<ref name="Rote Liste">Rote Liste Service GmbH (Hrsg.): Rote Liste 2017 – Arzneimittelverzeichnis für Deutschland (einschließlich EU-Zulassungen und bestimmter Medizinprodukte). Rote Liste Service GmbH, Frankfurt/Main, 2017, Aufl. 57, Template:ISBN, S. 178.</ref>

Enantiomers
File:(R)-Donepezil Structural Formula V1.svg (R)-Donepezil	File:(S)-Donepezil Structural Formula V1.svg (S)-Donepezil

History

File:AChE inhibited by donepezil 1EVE.png

Donepezil inhibiting Torpedo californica acetylcholinesterase<ref>Template:Proteopedia</ref>

File:Aricept 10mg 000195lg.jpg

10 mg Aricept pill

Research leading to the development of donepezil began in 1983, at Eisai, and in 1996, Eisai received approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for donepezil under the brand Aricept, which it co-marketed with Pfizer.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The team at Eisai was led by Hachiro Sugimoto.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

As of 2011, Aricept was the world's best-selling Alzheimer's disease treatment.<ref name=bb2011>Template:Cite news</ref> The first generic donepezil became available in November 2010, with the US FDA approval of a formulation prepared by Ranbaxy Labs.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Research

Donepezil has been tested in other cognitive disorders, including Lewy body dementia,<ref name="pmid11215841">Template:Cite journal</ref> and vascular dementia,<ref name="pmid14974068">Template:Cite journal</ref> but it is not currently approved for these indications. Donepezil has also been found to improve sleep apnea in people with Alzheimer's.<ref name="pmid18198262">Template:Cite journal</ref> It also improves gait in people with mild Alzheimer's.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Donepezil has also been studied in people with mild cognitive impairment, schizophrenia, attention deficit disorder, post-coronary artery bypass surgery cognitive impairment,<ref name="pmid17514186">Template:Cite journal</ref> cognitive impairment associated with multiple sclerosis, CADASIL syndrome, and Down syndrome. A three-year National Institutes of Health trial in people with mild cognitive impairment reported donepezil was superior to placebo in delaying rate of progression to dementia during the initial 18 months of the study, but this was not sustained at 36 months.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In a secondary analysis, a subgroup of individuals with the apolipoprotein E4 genotype showed sustained benefits with donepezil throughout the study.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> At this time, though, donepezil is not indicated for prevention of dementia.

Cognitive enhancement

Donepezil has shown mixed results for improving cognitive abilities in healthy individuals.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref> A 2009 double-blind, placebo controlled study (n=24) investigating donepezil's effects across a variety of memory tests in reported an improvement in spatial memory accuracy both before (90 minutes after dosing) and at theoretical T_max (210 minutes after dosing).<ref name=":1" /> However, a later 2011 paper featuring two study double-blind, placebo controlled experiments evaluating donepezil's effects in older but healthy subjects reported impairment after acute (5 hours after dose) and chronic (4 weeks) donepezil administration.<ref name=":2" />

ADHD

The addition of donepezil with existing medications for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has shown mixed results.<ref name="Elbe 2019 p. ">Template:Cite book</ref> In those with Tourette syndrome and ADHD, donepezil may reduce tics while it had no effect on ADHD's symptoms.<ref name="Elbe 2019 p. "/>

Pervasive developmental disorder

Donepezil, along with other cholinesterase inhibitors, is suggested as having potential for trouble behaviors: irritability, hyperactivity, and difficulty in social communication which are typically seen in those with pervasive developmental disorder, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified, and autism-spectrum disorder.<ref name="Elbe 2019 p. "/>

Anorexia nervosa

Donepezil is furthermore suggested as a feasible therapeutic option for anorexia nervosa. Emerging literature reports that a subset of patients suffering from restrictive anorexia nervosa have enhanced habit formation compared with healthy controls. Habit formation is modulated by striatal cholinergic interneurons.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Based on the physiopathology of anorexia nervosa, namely in terms of cholinergic deficiencies, the effects of donepezil and other drugs that act as cholinesterase inhibitors could thus be effective in the treatment of the disorder.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, no trial to date supports this hypothesis.

Synergy

Donepezil was claimed to act synergistically with an agent called FK962 [283167-06-6]<ref name="McCarthyOwens2011">Template:Cite journal</ref> & FK960 [133920-70-4].<ref name="Tokita2002">Template:Cite journal</ref> {potential activation of somatostatinergic neurotransmission} However, the development was discontinued after Phase II "since the data reviewed did not indicate clear efficacy of the compound for the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Further reading

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