Ebla
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Ebla (Sumerian: Template:Cuneiform eb₂-la,<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Template:Langx, modern: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Tell Mardikh) was one of the earliest kingdoms in Syria. Its remains constitute a tell located about Template:Convert southwest of Aleppo near the village of Mardikh. Ebla was an important center throughout the Template:Nowrap and in the first half of the Template:Nowrap Its discovery proved the Levant was a center of ancient, centralized civilization equal to Egypt and Mesopotamia and ruled out the view that the latter two were the only important centers in the Near East during the Early Bronze Age. The first Eblaite kingdom has been described as the first recorded world power.
Starting as a small settlement in the Early Bronze Age (Template:Circa Template:Sc), Ebla developed into a trading empire and later into an expansionist power that imposed its hegemony over much of northern and eastern Syria.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Ebla was destroyed during the Template:Nowrap It was then rebuilt and was mentioned in the records of the Third Dynasty of Ur. The second Ebla was a continuation of the first, ruled by a new royal dynasty. It was destroyed at the end of the Template:Nowrap which paved the way for the Amorite tribes to settle in the city, forming the third Ebla. The third kingdom also flourished as a trade center; it became a subject and an ally of Yamhad (modern-day Aleppo) until its final destruction by the Hittite king Template:Nowrap in Template:Circa Template:Sc.
Ebla maintained its prosperity through a vast trading network. Artifacts from Sumer, Cyprus, Egypt and as far as Afghanistan were recovered from the city's palaces. The kingdom had its own language, Eblaite, and the political organization of Ebla had features different from the Sumerian model. Women enjoyed a special status, and the queen had major influence in the state and religious affairs. The pantheon of gods was mainly north Semitic and included deities exclusive to Ebla. The city was excavated from 1964 and became famous for the Ebla tablets, an archive of about 20,000 cuneiform tablets found there, dated to 2500 Template:Sc–2350 Template:Sc.<ref group="note">All dates in this article are estimated by the Middle Chronology, unless stated otherwise.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Written in both Sumerian and Eblaite and using the cuneiform, the archive has allowed a better understanding of the Sumerian language and provided important information over the political organization and social customs of the mid-3rd millennium Template:Sc's Levant.
EtymologyEdit
The word "Ebla" means "white rock" and may refer to the limestone outcrop on which the city was built.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
HistoryEdit
ChalcolithicEdit
In the central mound, finds from the Late Ubaid and Late Chalcolithic has been found.<ref>Vacca, Agnese. “Vacca, A. 2018. Centralization Before the Palace. The EB III–IVA1 Sequence on the Acropolis of Tell Mardikh/Ebla.” In P. Matthiae, F. Pinnock and M. D'Andrea (Eds), Ebla and Beyond Ancient Near Eastern Studies after Fifty Years of Discoveries at Tell Mardikh Proceedings of the International Congress Held in Rome, 15th‒17th December 2014, Wiesbaden, Pp 35-73, 2018, 35–73 .</ref>
Early BronzeEdit
Ebla was first settled around 3500 Template:Sc;Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn its growth was supported by many satellite agricultural settlements.Template:Sfn The city benefited from its role as an entrepôt of growing international trade, which probably began with an increased demand for wool in Sumer.Template:Sfn Archaeologists designate this early habitation period "Mardikh I"; it ended around 3000 Template:Sc.Template:Sfn
Mardikh I is followed by the first and second kingdoms era between about 3000 and 2000 Template:Sc, designated "Mardikh II".Template:Sfn I. J. Gelb considered Ebla as part of the Kish civilization, which was a cultural entity of East Semitic-speaking populations that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to the western Levant.Template:Sfn
First kingdomEdit
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During the first kingdom period between about 3000 and 2300 Template:Sc, Ebla was the most prominent kingdom among the Syrian states, especially during the second half of the 3rd millennium Template:Sc, which is known as "the age of the archives" after the Ebla tablets.Template:Sfn
Mardiikh IIA: The early period between 3000 and 2400 Template:Sc is designated "Mardikh IIA".Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn General knowledge about the city's history prior to the written archives is obtained through excavations.Template:Sfn The first stages of Mardikh IIA is identified with building "CC",Template:Sfn and structures that form a part of building "G2",Template:Sfn which was apparently a royal palace built Template:Circa Template:Sc.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Toward the end of this period, a hundred years' war with Mari started.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mari gained the upper hand through the actions of its king Saʿumu, who conquered many of Ebla's cities.Template:Sfn In the mid-25th century Template:Sc, king Kun-Damu defeated Mari, but the state's power declined following his reign.<ref group="note">The political weakness started during the short reign of Adub-Damu.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn
Mardikh IIB1: The archive period, which is designated "Mardikh IIB1", lasted from Template:Circa Template:Sc until Template:Circa Template:Sc.Template:Sfn The end of the period is known as the "first destruction",Template:Sfn mainly referring to the destruction of the royal palace (called palace "G" and built over the earlier "G2"),Template:Sfn and much of the acropolis.Template:Sfn During the archive period, Ebla had political and military dominance over the other Syrian city-states of northern and eastern Syria, which are mentioned in the archives.Template:Sfn Most of the tablets, which date from that period, are about economic matters but also include royal letters and diplomatic documents.Template:Sfn
The written archives do not date from before Igrish-Halam's reign,Template:Sfn which saw Ebla paying tribute to Mari,Template:Sfn and an extensive invasion of Eblaite cities in the middle Euphrates region led by the Mariote king Iblul-Il.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ebla recovered under King Irkab-Damu in about 2340 Template:Sc; becoming prosperous and launching a successful counter-offensive against Mari.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Irkab-Damu concluded a peace and trading treaty with Abarsal.<ref group="note">Probably located along the Euphrates river east of Ebla.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn This Treaty between Ebla and Abarsal is one of the earliest-recorded treaties in history.Template:Sfn
GeographyEdit
At its greatest extent, Ebla controlled an area roughly half the size of modern Syria,Template:Sfn from Ursa'um in the north,Template:Sfn to the area around Damascus in the south,Template:Sfn and from Phoenicia and the coastal mountains in the west,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn to Haddu in the east.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Large parts of the kingdom were under the direct control of the king and were administered by governors; the rest consisted of vassal kingdoms.Template:Sfn One of the most important of these vassals was Armi,Template:Sfn which is the city most often mentioned in the Ebla tablets.Template:Sfn Ebla had more than sixty vassal kingdoms and city-states,Template:Sfn including Hazuwan, Burman, Emar, Halabitu and Salbatu.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
According to Archi, these are "the twelve Syrian cities long allied with Ebla that (presumably) assisted in some way during the expedition against Mari: NIrar, Ra’ak, Burman, Dub, Emar, Garmu, Lumnan, Ibubu, Ursaum, Utik, Kakmium, and Iritum (Irridu)." Furthermore, the following cities were under Ebla’s hegemony at that time, and annually delivered tribute: Dub, Dulu, Harran, Ibubu, Iritum, Kablul, Sanapzugum, Ursaum, and Utik.Template:Sfn
The vizier was the king's chief official.Template:Sfn The holder of the office possessed great authority; the most powerful vizier was Ibrium, who campaigned against Abarsal during the term of his predecessor Arrukum.Template:Sfn Ibrium held office for 18 years with warfare occurring in all but one year.<ref>Archi, Alfonso. "The Wars of Ebla at the Time of Minister Ibrium" Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 48, no. 2, 2021, pp. 189-220</ref> During the reign of Isar-Damu, Ebla continued the war against Mari, which defeated Ebla's ally Nagar, blocking trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia.Template:Sfn Ebla conducted regular military campaigns against rebellious vassals,Template:Sfn including several attacks on Armi,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and a campaign against the southern region of Ib'al – close to Qatna.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In order to settle the war with Mari, Isar-Damu allied with Nagar and Kish. Some scholars have suggested that the Kish in question was not the Mesopotamian city but rather a town near Nagar in the Khabur area.<ref>POMPONIO, Francesco. "FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS ON KIŠKI IN THE EBLA TEXTS." Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 107, pp. 71–83, 2013</ref>Template:Sfn The campaign was headed by the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish, who led the combined armies to victory in a battle near Terqa.Template:Sfn The alliance also attacked Armi and occupied it, leaving Ibbi-Sipish's son Enzi-Malik as governor.Template:Sfn Ebla suffered its first destruction a few years after the campaign,Template:Sfn probably following Isar-Damu's death.Template:Sfn
First destruction of EblaEdit
The first destruction occurred Template:Circa Template:Sc; palace "G" was burned, baking the clay tablets of the royal archives and preserving them.Template:Sfn Many theories about the cause and the perpetrator have been posited:Template:Sfn
- High (early) dating hypothesis: Giovanni Pettinato supports an early dating for Ebla that would put the destruction at around 2500 Template:Sc.<ref group="note">At first Pettinato supported the Naram-Sin theory before proposing the High dating.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn Pettinato, while preferring the date of 2500 Template:Sc, later accepted the event could have happened in 2400 Template:Sc.<ref group="note">Michael Astour argues that using the chronology accepted by Pettinato, one obtains the date of 2500 Template:Sc for the reign of Ur-Nanshe of Lagash, who ruled approximately 150 years prior to Lagash's destruction at the hands of king Lugalzagesi. Since Ur-Nanshe ruled in 2500 Template:Sc, and his reign is separated by at least 150 years from Hidar of Mari's reign which saw Ebla's destruction, then the date for that event is pulled beyond 2500 Template:Sc and even 2400 Template:Sc.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn The scholar suggests the city was destroyed in 2400 Template:Sc by a Mesopotamian such as Eannatum of Lagash – who boasted of taking tribute from Mari – or Lugalzagesi of Umma, who claimed to have reached the Mediterranean.<ref group="note">Astour argue that according to the middle chronology used for the 2400 Template:Sc date, Eannatum's reign ended in 2425 Template:Sc and Ebla was not destroyed until 2400 Template:Sc; according to the same chronology Lugalzagesi's reign would have started fifty years after 2400 Template:Sc.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn
- Akkadian hypothesis: Both kings Sargon of Akkad and his grandson Naram-Sin claimed to have destroyed a town called Ibla,Template:Sfn The discoverer of Ebla, Paolo Matthiae, considers Sargon a more likely culprit;<ref group="note">At first Matthiae supported the Naram-Sin theory then switched to Sargon.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn his view is supported by Trevor Bryce,Template:Sfn but rejected by Michael Astour.<ref group="note">Astour believes that Sargon and his grandson were referring to a city with a similar name in Iraq named "Ib-la".Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Astour says the archives of Ebla at the time of their destruction correspond to the political situation predating the establishment of the Akkadian empire, not just the reign of Naram-Sin.Template:Sfn It is also unlikely Sargon was responsible because at the time of their destruction, the Ebla tablets describe Kish as independent. Lugalzagesi sacked Kish and was killed by Sargon before Sargon destroyed Ibla or Ebla.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn The conquest of Armanum and Ebla on the Mediterranean coast by Naram-Sin is mentioned in several of his inscriptions:<ref name="DF132">Template:Cite book</ref>
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
"Whereas, for all time since the creation of mankind, no king whosoever had destroyed Armanum and Ebla, the god Nergal, by means of (his) weapons opened the way for Naram-Sin, the mighty, and gave him Armanum and Ebla. Further, he gave to him the Amanus, the Cedar Mountain, and the Upper Sea. By means of the weapons of the god Dagan, who magnifies his kingship, Naram-Sin, the mighty, conquered Armanum and Ebla."{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries}}
{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Blockquote with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | author | by | char | character | cite | class | content | multiline | personquoted | publication | quote | quotesource | quotetext | sign | source | style | text | title | ts }}
- Mari's revenge: According to Alfonso Archi and Maria Biga, the destruction happened approximately three or four years after the battle of Terqa.Template:Sfn Archi and Biga say the destruction was caused by MariTemplate:Sfn in retaliation for its humiliating defeat at Terqa.<ref>Archi, Alfonso, and Maria Giovanna Biga. “A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 55, pp. 1–44, 2003</ref>Template:Sfn This view is supported by Mario Liverani.Template:Sfn Archi says the Mariote king Isqi-Mari destroyed Ebla before ascending the throne of his city.Template:Sfn
- Natural catastrophe: Astour says a natural catastrophe caused the blaze which ended the archive period.Template:Sfn He says the destruction was limited to the area of the royal palace and there is no convincing evidence of looting.Template:Sfn He dates the fire to Template:Circa Template:Sc (Middle Chronology).Template:Sfn
Second kingdomEdit
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-
{{#if:|
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| belowclass = mergedtoprow noprint | below = {{#if:| Template:Navbar }} }}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Infobox country with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| admin_center_type | admin_center | alt_coat | alt_flag | alt_flag2 | alt_map | alt_map2 | alt_map3 | alt_symbol | anthem | anthems | antipodes | area_acre | area_data2 | area_data3 | area_footnote | area_ha | area_km2 | area_label | area_label2 | area_label3 | area_land_acre | area_land_footnote | area_land_ha | area_land_km2 | area_land_sq_mi | area_link | area_rank | area_sq_mi | area_water_acre | area_water_footnote | area_water_ha | area_water_km2 | area_water_sq_mi | regexp1 = border_[ps][%d]+ | calling_code | capital_exile | capital_type | capital | cctld | coa_size | coat_alt | common_languages | common_name | conventional_long_name | coordinates | currency_code | currency | date_end | regexp2 = date_event[%d]+ | date_format | date_post | date_pre | date_start | demonym | regexp3 = deputy[%d]+ | drives_on | DST_note | DST | empire | englishmotto | era | regexp4 = established_date[%d]+ | regexp5 = established_event[%d]+ | established | ethnic_groups_ref | ethnic_groups_year | ethnic_groups | event_end | event_post | event_pre | event_start | regexp6 = event[%d]+ | flag| flag_alt | flag_alt2 | flag_border | flag_caption | flag_caption | regexp7 = flag_[ps][%d]+ | flag_size | flag_type | flag_type_article | flag_width | flag2_border | regexp8 = footnote_[a-h] | regexp9 = footnote[%d]+ | footnotes | footnotes2 | FR_cadastre_area_km2 | FR_cadastre_area_rank | FR_cadastre_area_sq_mi | FR_foot | FR_foot2 | FR_foot3 | FR_foot4 | FR_foot5 | FR_IGN_area_km2 | FR_IGN_area_rank | FR_IGN_area_sq_mi | FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank | FR_metropole_population | FR_metropole | FR_total_population_estimate_rank | FR_total_population_estimate_year | FR_total_population_estimate | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank | GDP_nominal_per_capita | GDP_nominal_rank | GDP_nominal_year | GDP_nominal | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank | GDP_PPP_per_capita | GDP_PPP_rank | GDP_PPP_year | GDP_PPP | Gini_change | Gini_rank | Gini_ref | Gini_year | Gini | government_type | HDI_change | HDI_rank | HDI_ref | HDI_year | HDI | house1 | house2 | image_coat | image_flag | image_flag2 | image_map_alt | image_map_caption | image_map_size | image_map | image_map2_alt | image_map2_caption | image_map2_size | image_map2 | image_map3 | regexp10 = image_[ps][%d]+ | image_symbol | iso3166code | languages_sub | languages_type | languages | languages2_sub | languages2_type | languages2 | largest_city | largest_settlement_type | largest_settlement | regexp11 = leader_name[%d]+ | regexp12 = leader_title[%d]+ | regexp13 = leader[%d]+ | legislature | life_span | linking_name | location_map | loctext | lower_house | map_caption | map_caption2 | map_caption3 | map_width | map2_width | map3_width | membership_type | membership | micronation | motto | name | national_anthem | national_languages | national_motto | native_name | navbar | nummembers | official_languages | official_website | org_type | other_symbol_type | other_symbol | regexp14 = [ps][%d]+ | patron_saint | patron_saints | percent_water | politics_link | pop_den_footnote | population_census_rank | population_census_year | population_census | population_data2 | population_data3 | population_density_km2 | population_density_rank | population_density_sq_mi | population_estimate_rank | population_estimate_year | population_estimate | population_label2 | population_label3 | population_link | recognised_languages | recognised_national_languages | recognised_regional_languages | recognized_languages | recognized_national_languages | regexp15 = ref_area[%d]+ | regexp16 = ref_pop[%d]+ | regional_languages | recognized_regional_languages | religion_ref | religion_year | religion | regexp17 = representative[%d]+ | royal_anthem | flag_anthem | march | national_march | regional_anthem | territorial_anthem | state_anthem | sovereignty_note | sovereignty_type | regexp18 = stat_area[%d]+ | regexp19 = stat_pop[%d]+ | regexp20 = stat_year[%d]+ | status_text | status | symbol| symbol_type_article | symbol_type | symbol_width | text_symbol_type | text_symbol | time_zone_DST | time_zone | title_deputy | title_leader | title_representative | today | type_house1 | type_house2 | upper_house | utc_offset_DST | utc_offset | regexp21 = year_deputy[%d]+ | year_end | year_exile_end | year_exile_start | regexp22 = year_leader[%d]+ | regexp23 = year_representative[%d]+ | year_start}}Template:Main other{{#if:|{{#ifeq:|Colony|Template:Main other|{{#ifeq:|Exile|Template:Main other}}}} }}
The second kingdom's period is designated "Mardikh IIB2", and spans the period between 2300 and 2000 Template:Sc.Template:Sfn The second kingdom lasted until Ebla's second destruction, which occurred anytime between 2050 and 1950 Template:Sc, with the 2000 Template:Sc dating being a mere formal date.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Akkadians under Sargon of Akkad and his descendant Naram-Sin invaded the northern borders of Ebla aiming for the forests of the Amanus Mountain; the intrusions were separated by roughly 90 years and the areas attacked were not attached to Akkad.Template:Sfn Archi accept that the Ibla mentioned in the annals of Sargon and Naram-Sin is the Syrian Ebla but do not consider them responsible for the destruction which ended the Archive period.Template:Sfn By the time of Naram-Sin, Armi was the hegemonic city in northern Syria and was destroyed by the Akkadian king.Template:Sfn
A new local dynasty ruled the second kingdom of Ebla,Template:Sfn but there was continuity with its first kingdom heritage.Template:Sfn Ebla maintained its earliest features, including its architectural style and the sanctity of the first kingdom's religious sites.Template:Sfn A new royal palace was built in the lower town,Template:Sfn and the transition from the archive period is marked only by the destruction of palace "G".Template:Sfn Little is known about the second kingdom because no written material have been discovered aside from one inscription dating to the end of the period.Template:Sfn
The second kingdom was attested to in contemporaneous sources; in an inscription, Gudea of Lagash asked for cedars to be brought from Urshu in the mountains of Ebla, indicating Ebla's territory included Urshu north of Carchemish in modern-day Turkey.Template:Sfn Texts that dates to the seventh year of Amar-Sin (Template:Circa Template:Sc),<ref group="note">Amar-Sin's reign lasted from 2045 to 2037 Template:Sc (middle chronology).Template:Sfn</ref> a ruler of the Ur III empire, mention a messenger of the Ensí ("Megum") of Ebla.<ref group="note">"Megum" is thought to have been a title of the ruler of Ebla rather than a personal name.Template:Sfn King Ibbit-Lim of the latter third kingdom of Ebla also used this title.Template:Sfn An Eblaite seal that reads the sentence Ib-Damu Mekim Ebla, was used in the Template:Nowrap by an Assyrian merchant named Assur-Nada from Kültepe.Template:Sfn Ib Damu was the name of an Eblaite king from the early period of the first kingdom.Template:Sfn</ref><ref group="note">In a tablet, the name of Ili-Dagan "the man of Ebla" is mentioned, and he was thought to be a ruler.Template:Sfn However, other texts mentions him as the envoy of Ebla's ruler.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn The second kingdom was considered a vassal by the Ur III government,Template:Sfn but the nature of the relation is unknown and it included the payment of tribute.Template:Sfn A formal recognition of Ur's overlordship appears to be a condition for the right of trade with that empire.Template:Sfn
The second kingdom disintegrated toward the end of the Template:NowrapTemplate:Sfn and ended with the destruction of the city by fire, although evidence for the event has only been found outside of the so-called "Temple of the Rock", and in the area around palace "E" on the acropolis.Template:Sfn The reason for the destruction is not known;Template:Sfn according to Astour, it could have been the result of a Hurrian invasion Template:Circa Template:Sc,Template:Sfn led by the former Eblaite vassal city of Ikinkalis.<ref group="note">Unidentified location to the north of Ebla in the proximity of Alalakh.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn The destruction of Ebla is mentioned in the fragmentary Hurro-Hittite legendary epic "Song of Release" discovered in 1983,Template:Sfn which Astour considers as describing the destruction of the second kingdom.Template:Sfn In the epic, an Eblaite assembly led by a man called "Zazalla" prevents king Meki from showing mercy to prisoners from Ebla's former vassal Ikinkalis,Template:Sfn provoking the wrath of the Hurrian storm god Teshub and causing him to destroy the city.Template:Sfn
Middle BronzeEdit
Third kingdomEdit
{{#invoke:Infobox|infoboxTemplate |templatestyles = Template:Infobox country/styles.css | bodyclass = ib-country vcard | aboveclass = adr | above = {{#if:Third Eblaite KingdomEbla
| {{#if:Third Eblaite Kingdom
|
}}{{#if:Ebla
|
}}{{#ifeq:|yes
|Micronation
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|
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| subheader = {{#if: | {{{life_span}}} | {{#if:Template:Circa Template:Sc|Template:Circa Template:Sc{{#if:Template:Circa Template:Sc|–Template:Circa Template:Sc }} }} }}
| image1 = {{#if:
|Template:Infobox country/imagetable }}
| data1 = {{#if:
|Motto: Template:If empty{{#if:|
}}
}}
| class2 = anthem | data2 = {{#if:
|Anthem: Template:If empty }}{{#if: |Anthems: {{{anthems}}} }}{{#if: |
}}{{#if:
|
}}{{#if:
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}}{{#if:
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}}{{#if:
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}}{{#if:
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}}{{#if:
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| data3 = {{#if:
|{{#if:
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| data4 = {{#if:
|{{#invoke:InfoboxImage|InfoboxImage|image=|size=|upright=1.15|alt=|title= }}{{#if:|
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| data5 = {{#if:
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| label7 = Location | data7 =
| label8 = {{#if: | {{{capital_type}}} | Capital }}{{#ifeq: {{#ifeq:|capital
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| data8 = {{#if:Ebla|Ebla{{#if:|
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| rowclass10 = {{#if:Ebla|mergedrow}} | label10 = {{#if:| {{{admin_center_type}}} | Administrative center }} | data10 = {{#switch:
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| rowclass11 = {{#if:Ebla|mergedbottomrow}} | label11 = Largest city | data11 = {{#ifeq: {{#ifeq:|capital
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| rowclass12 = mergedtoprow | label12 = Official languages | data12 = | rowclass13 = mergedrow | label13 = {{#if:|Recognized|Recognised}} languages | data13 = Template:If empty | rowclass14 = mergedrow | label14 = {{#if:|Recognized|Recognised}} national languages | data14 = Template:If empty | rowclass15 = mergedrow | label15 = {{#if:|Recognized|Recognised}} regional languages | data15 = Template:If empty | label16 = Common languages | data16 = Amorite language.Template:Sfn
| rowclass17 = {{#ifeq:|yes
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|{{#ifeq:|yes |mergedbottomrow}} }}
| label17 ={{#ifeq:|yes
|
|Template:If empty }}
| data17 =
| rowclass18 = {{#ifeq:|yes |mergedbottomrow}} | label18 = {{#ifeq:|yes
|
|Template:If empty }}
| data18 =
| label19 = Ethnic groups {{#if: |
|
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| data19 =
| label20 = Religion {{#if: |
|
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| data20 = Ancient Levantine religion
| label21 = Demonym(s) | data21 = {{#if:
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| label22 = Type | data22 =
| label23 = Template:If empty | data23 =
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| {{#if:
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| header25 = {{#if:Monarchy || {{#if:
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| rowclass27 = mergedrow | label27 = {{#if:| }} | data27 = {{#if:| }} | rowclass28 = mergedrow | data28 = {{#if: | Template:Infobox country/multirow }}
| rowclass29 = mergedrow | label29 = {{#if:| {{{title_representative}}} }} | data29 = {{#if:| }} | rowclass30 = mergedrow | data30 = {{#if:|Template:Infobox country/multirow }}
| rowclass31 = mergedrow | label31 = {{#if:|{{{title_deputy}}} }} | data31 = {{#if:| }} | rowclass32 = mergedrow | data32 = {{#if:|Template:Infobox country/multirow }}
| label40 = Legislature | data40 = | rowclass41 = mergedrow
| label41 =
| data41 = | rowclass42 = mergedbottomrow
| label42 =
| data42 =
| rowclass43 = {{#if: |mergedtoprow}} | header43 = {{#if:
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| {{#if:| | Establishment }}
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| label44 = Establishment | data44 = {{#if:
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| label45 = {{#if:Bronze Age|Historical era|History}} | data45 = {{#if:Bronze Age |{{#ifexist:Bronze Age|Bronze Age|Bronze Age}} | {{#if:Template:Circa Template:Sc| }}}}
| rowclass46 = {{#if: |mergedrow |mergedbottomrow}} | data46 = {{#if:|Template:Infobox country/multirow }}
| rowclass47 = {{#if:Template:Circa Template:Sc |mergedrow |mergedbottomrow}} | data47 = {{#if:Template:Circa Template:Sc|Template:Infobox country/multirow }}
| rowclass60 = mergedtoprow | header60 = {{#if:
| {{#if:
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| {{#ifexist:Geography of Ebla
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| Area {{#ifeq:|yes|claimed|}}}}}} }}
| rowclass61 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}}
| label61 =
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| rowclass62 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}}
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| rowclass63 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}}
| label63 =
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|{{#if:
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| rowclass64 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}}
| label64 =
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| rowclass65 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}}
| label65 =
| data65 = {{#if:| }}
| rowclass66 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}}
| label66 =
| data66 = {{#if:| }}
| rowclass67 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}} | label67 = | data67 = {{#if: | Template:Convinfobox }}
| rowclass68 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}} | label68 = | data68 = {{#if: | Template:Convinfobox }}
| rowclass69 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}} | label69 = | data69 = {{#if: | Template:Convinfobox }}
| rowclass70 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}} | label70 = | data70 = {{#if: | Template:Convinfobox }}
| rowclass71 = {{#if:|mergedrow|mergedbottomrow}} | label71 = | data71 = {{#if: | Template:Convinfobox }}
| rowclass72 = mergedrow
| label72 =
| data72 = {{#if:| }}
| rowclass73 = mergedrow
| label73 =
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| rowclass89 = mergedbottomrow
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| rowclass90 = mergedtoprow | header90 = {{#if:
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| rowclass91 = mergedrow
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| rowclass92 = mergedrow
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| rowclass95= mergedrow
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| rowclass97 = mergedrow
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}} }}
| rowclass98 = mergedrow
| label98=
| data98= {{#if:|{{{FR_metropole_population}}}{{#if:
| ({{{FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank}}})}} }}
| rowclass99 = mergedbottomrow
| label99=
| data99= {{#if:
| Template:Convinfobox{{#if: | ({{{population_density_rank}}})}} }}
| rowclass100 = {{#if:|mergedbottomrow|mergedtoprow}} | label100 = Membership | data100=
| rowclass101= mergedtoprow | label101= {{#ifeq:|yes|Claimed|}} GDP Template:Nobold | data101= {{#if:
|{{#if: |{{{GDP_PPP_year}}} }}estimate
}}
| rowclass102= mergedrow
| label102=
| data102= {{#if:
|{{{GDP_PPP}}}{{#if: | ({{{GDP_PPP_rank}}})}}
}}
| rowclass103= mergedbottomrow
| label103=
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| rowclass104= mergedtoprow | label104= {{#ifeq:|yes|Claimed|}} GDP Template:Nobold | data104= {{#if:
|{{#if: |{{{GDP_nominal_year}}} }}estimate
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| rowclass105= mergedrow
| label105=
| data105= {{#if:
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}}
| rowclass106= mergedbottomrow
| label106=
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| label107= Gini{{#if: | Template:Nobold}} | data107= {{#if:
| {{#switch:
|increase = Template:IncreaseNegative |decrease = Template:DecreasePositive |steady = Template:Steady }}{{{Gini}}}
Template:Nowrap{{#if:
| ({{{Gini_rank}}})}}}}
| label108= HDI{{#if: | Template:Nobold}} | data108= {{#if:
| {{#switch:
|increase = Template:Increase |decrease = Template:Decrease |steady = Template:Steady }}{{{HDI}}}
Template:Nowrap{{#if:
| ({{{HDI_rank}}})}}}}
| label109= {{#ifeq:|yes|Purported currency|Currency}} | data109= {{#if:
| {{#if: |({{{currency_code}}})}}
}}
| rowclass119= {{#if: |mergedtoprow}} | label119= Time zone | data119= {{#if:
|Template:Nowrap {{#if:|({{{time_zone}}})}} | }}
| rowclass120= {{#if: |mergedrow |mergedbottomrow}}
| label120=
| data120= {{#if:
|Template:Nowrap {{#if:|({{{time_zone_DST}}})|{{#if:|({{{DST}}})}}}} |{{#if:|{{{time_zone_DST}}}|}} }}
| rowclass121= mergedbottomrow | label121= | data121=
| label122 = Antipodes | data122=
| label123 = Date format | data123=
| label126= {{#if:
|{{#ifexist:Telephone numbers in Ebla
| Calling code
| Calling code
}}
}}
| data126=
| label127= ISO 3166 code | data127= {{#switch:
|omit =
| = {{#if:Ebla
| {{#if:Template:ISO 3166 code
| [[ISO 3166-2:Template:ISO 3166 code|Template:ISO 3166 code]]
}}
}}
|#default = [[ISO 3166-2:{{{ISO3166CODE}}}|{{{ISO3166CODE}}}]]
}}
| label128= Internet TLD | data128=
| data129 = {{#if:
|
{{{official_website}}}
}}
| data130= {{#if:
| {{#invoke:InfoboxImage|InfoboxImage|image=|size=|upright=1.15|alt=|title=Location of Ebla }}{{#if:|
}}
}}
| data134 = {{#if:Hittites
|Template:Infobox country/formernext
}}
| label135 = Today part of | data135 =
| data136 = {{#if:
|
-
{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|}}
}}
| data137 = {{#if:
|
-
{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|
}}{{#if:|}}
}} | data138 = {{#if:|
{{{footnotes2}}}}}
}}
| belowclass = mergedtoprow noprint | below = {{#if:| Template:Navbar }} }}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Infobox country with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| admin_center_type | admin_center | alt_coat | alt_flag | alt_flag2 | alt_map | alt_map2 | alt_map3 | alt_symbol | anthem | anthems | antipodes | area_acre | area_data2 | area_data3 | area_footnote | area_ha | area_km2 | area_label | area_label2 | area_label3 | area_land_acre | area_land_footnote | area_land_ha | area_land_km2 | area_land_sq_mi | area_link | area_rank | area_sq_mi | area_water_acre | area_water_footnote | area_water_ha | area_water_km2 | area_water_sq_mi | regexp1 = border_[ps][%d]+ | calling_code | capital_exile | capital_type | capital | cctld | coa_size | coat_alt | common_languages | common_name | conventional_long_name | coordinates | currency_code | currency | date_end | regexp2 = date_event[%d]+ | date_format | date_post | date_pre | date_start | demonym | regexp3 = deputy[%d]+ | drives_on | DST_note | DST | empire | englishmotto | era | regexp4 = established_date[%d]+ | regexp5 = established_event[%d]+ | established | ethnic_groups_ref | ethnic_groups_year | ethnic_groups | event_end | event_post | event_pre | event_start | regexp6 = event[%d]+ | flag| flag_alt | flag_alt2 | flag_border | flag_caption | flag_caption | regexp7 = flag_[ps][%d]+ | flag_size | flag_type | flag_type_article | flag_width | flag2_border | regexp8 = footnote_[a-h] | regexp9 = footnote[%d]+ | footnotes | footnotes2 | FR_cadastre_area_km2 | FR_cadastre_area_rank | FR_cadastre_area_sq_mi | FR_foot | FR_foot2 | FR_foot3 | FR_foot4 | FR_foot5 | FR_IGN_area_km2 | FR_IGN_area_rank | FR_IGN_area_sq_mi | FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank | FR_metropole_population | FR_metropole | FR_total_population_estimate_rank | FR_total_population_estimate_year | FR_total_population_estimate | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank | GDP_nominal_per_capita | GDP_nominal_rank | GDP_nominal_year | GDP_nominal | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank | GDP_PPP_per_capita | GDP_PPP_rank | GDP_PPP_year | GDP_PPP | Gini_change | Gini_rank | Gini_ref | Gini_year | Gini | government_type | HDI_change | HDI_rank | HDI_ref | HDI_year | HDI | house1 | house2 | image_coat | image_flag | image_flag2 | image_map_alt | image_map_caption | image_map_size | image_map | image_map2_alt | image_map2_caption | image_map2_size | image_map2 | image_map3 | regexp10 = image_[ps][%d]+ | image_symbol | iso3166code | languages_sub | languages_type | languages | languages2_sub | languages2_type | languages2 | largest_city | largest_settlement_type | largest_settlement | regexp11 = leader_name[%d]+ | regexp12 = leader_title[%d]+ | regexp13 = leader[%d]+ | legislature | life_span | linking_name | location_map | loctext | lower_house | map_caption | map_caption2 | map_caption3 | map_width | map2_width | map3_width | membership_type | membership | micronation | motto | name | national_anthem | national_languages | national_motto | native_name | navbar | nummembers | official_languages | official_website | org_type | other_symbol_type | other_symbol | regexp14 = [ps][%d]+ | patron_saint | patron_saints | percent_water | politics_link | pop_den_footnote | population_census_rank | population_census_year | population_census | population_data2 | population_data3 | population_density_km2 | population_density_rank | population_density_sq_mi | population_estimate_rank | population_estimate_year | population_estimate | population_label2 | population_label3 | population_link | recognised_languages | recognised_national_languages | recognised_regional_languages | recognized_languages | recognized_national_languages | regexp15 = ref_area[%d]+ | regexp16 = ref_pop[%d]+ | regional_languages | recognized_regional_languages | religion_ref | religion_year | religion | regexp17 = representative[%d]+ | royal_anthem | flag_anthem | march | national_march | regional_anthem | territorial_anthem | state_anthem | sovereignty_note | sovereignty_type | regexp18 = stat_area[%d]+ | regexp19 = stat_pop[%d]+ | regexp20 = stat_year[%d]+ | status_text | status | symbol| symbol_type_article | symbol_type | symbol_width | text_symbol_type | text_symbol | time_zone_DST | time_zone | title_deputy | title_leader | title_representative | today | type_house1 | type_house2 | upper_house | utc_offset_DST | utc_offset | regexp21 = year_deputy[%d]+ | year_end | year_exile_end | year_exile_start | regexp22 = year_leader[%d]+ | regexp23 = year_representative[%d]+ | year_start}}Template:Main other{{#if:|{{#ifeq:|Colony|Template:Main other|{{#ifeq:|Exile|Template:Main other}}}} }}
The third kingdom is designated "Mardikh III"; it is divided into periods "A" (Template:Circa Template:Sc) and "B" (Template:Circa Template:Sc).Template:Sfn In period "A", Ebla was quickly rebuilt as a planned city.Template:Sfn The foundations covered the remains of Mardikh II; new palaces and temples were built, and new fortifications were built in two circles – one for the low city and one for the acropolis.Template:Sfn The city was laid out on regular lines and large public buildings were built.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Further construction took place in period "B".Template:Sfn
The first known king of the third kingdom is Ibbit-Lim,Template:Sfn who described himself as the Mekim of Ebla.<ref group="note">This led Astour, David I. Owen and Ron Veenker to identify Ibbit-Lim with the pre-Amorite Megum of the Third Ur era.Template:Sfn However, this identification is now refuted.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn A basalt votive statue bearing Ibbit-Lim's inscription was discovered in 1968; this helped to identify the site of Tell-Mardikh with the ancient kingdom Ebla.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The name of the king is Amorite in the view of Pettinato; it is therefore probable the inhabitants of third kingdom Ebla were predominantly Amorites, as were most of the inhabitants of Syria at that time.Template:Sfn
By the beginning of the Template:Nowrap Ebla had become a vassal of Yamhad, an Amorite kingdom centered in Aleppo.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Written records are not available for this period, but the city was still a vassal during Yarim-Lim III of Yamhad's reign.Template:Sfn One of the known rulers of Ebla during this period was Immeya, who received gifts from the Egyptian Pharaoh Hotepibre, indicating the continuing wide connections and importance of Ebla.Template:Sfn The city was mentioned in tablets from the Yamhadite vassal city of Alalakh in modern-day Turkey; an Eblaite princess married a son of King Ammitaqum of Alalakh, who belonged to a branch of the royal Yamhadite dynasty.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Ebla was destroyed by the Hittite King Template:Nowrap in about 1600 Template:Sc.Template:Sfn Indilimma was probably the last king of Ebla;Template:Sfn a seal of his crown prince Maratewari was discovered in the western palace "Q".Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Alternatively, Maratewari could well be the last king according to Archi,Template:Sfn who also argued that the "Song of Release" epic describes the destruction of the third kingdom and preserves older elements.Template:Sfn
Later periodsEdit
Ebla never recovered from its third destruction. It was a small village in the phase designated "Mardikh IV" (1600–1200 Template:Sc),Template:Sfn and was mentioned in the records of Alalakh as a vassal to the Idrimi dynasty.Template:Sfn "Mardikh V" (1200–535 Template:Sc) was a rural, Early Iron Age settlement that grew in size during later periods.Template:Sfn Further development occurred during "Mardikh VI", which lasted until Template:Circa Template:Sc.Template:Sfn "Mardikh VII" began in the Template:Nowrap and lasted until the 7th century,Template:Sfn after which the site was abandoned.Template:Sfn
SiteEdit
City layoutEdit
Ebla consisted of a lower town and a raised acropolis in the center.Template:Sfn During the first kingdom, the city had an area of 56 hectares and was protected by mud-brick fortifications.Template:Sfn Ebla was divided into four districts – each with its own gate in the outer wall.Template:Sfn The acropolis included the king's palace "G",Template:Sfn and one of two temples in city dedicated to Kura (called the "Red Temple").Template:Sfn The lower city included the second temple of Kura in the southeast called "Temple of the Rock".Template:Sfn During the second kingdom, a royal palace (Archaic palace "P5") was built in the lower town northwest of the acropolis,Template:Sfn in addition to temple "D" built over the destroyed "Red Temple".Template:Sfn
During the third kingdom, Ebla was a large city nearly 60 hectares in size,Template:Sfn and was protected by a fortified rampart, with double chambered gates.Template:Sfn The acropolis was fortified and separated from the lower town.Template:Sfn New royal palace "E" was built on the acropolis (during Mardikh IIIB),Template:Sfn and a temple of Ishtar was constructed over the former "Red" and "D" temples (in area "D").Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The lower town was also divided into four districts;Template:Sfn palace "P5" was used during Mardikh IIIA,Template:Sfn and replaced during Mardikh IIIB by the "Intermediate Palace".Template:Sfn
Other third kingdom buildings included the vizier palace,<ref group="note">Called the southern palace (in area "FF"), it was located at the foot of the southern side of the acropolis.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn the western palace (in area "Q"),Template:Sfn the temple of Shamash (temple "N"), the temple of Rasap (temple "B1") and the northern palace (built over the "Intermediate Palace").Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In the north of the lower town, a second temple for Ishtar was built,Template:Sfn while the former "Temple of the Rock" was replaced by a temple of Hadad.<ref group="note">Area HH.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn
Royal burialsEdit
The kings of the first kingdom were buried outside the city; the last ten kings (ending with Irkab-Damu) were buried in Darib,Template:Sfn while older kings were buried in a royal mausoleum located in Binas and only one royal tomb dating to the first kingdom was discovered in Ebla (Hypogeum "G4").Template:Sfn This first kingdom tomb was probably built during the reign of the last king and might be an indication of Eblaite adoption of Mesopotamian traditions to bury the kings beneath their royal palaces.Template:Sfn
The third kingdom royal necropolis was discovered beneath palace "Q" (the western palace); it contains many hypogea but only three were excavated.Template:Sfn Those tombs were natural caves in the bedrock of the palace's foundation; they all date to the 19th and Template:Nowrap and had a similar plan consisting of an entrance shaft, burial chambers and a dromos connecting the shaft to the chamber.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Hypogeum G4Edit
The royal tomb found in the royal palace "G" is designated hypogeum "G4"; it dates to the archive period, most probably the reign of Isar-Damu.Template:Sfn The tomb is heavily damaged; most of its stones were sacked and nothing of the roof system remains.Template:Sfn It also lacks any skeletal remains or funerary goods suggesting that it was either heavily pillaged, never used, or was built as a cenotaph.Template:Sfn
Excavated between 1992 and 1995, it is located underneath the western sector of the palace at a depth of almost 6 meters.Template:Sfn The tomb is composed of two rooms opened on each other's with lime plaster floors.Template:Sfn Both rooms are rectangular in shape; the eastern room (L.6402) is 4 meters wide, more than 3,5 meters long (total length is unknown due to heavy damage) and west–east oriented.Template:Sfn The western room (L.5762) is 5.20 meters long, 4 meters wide and west–east oriented.Template:Sfn Limestone was used to build the walls and few blocks protruding from the sides toward the middle of the rooms suggest the roof to have been a corbelled vault.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Western palace tombsEdit
The tombs were found under the floor of Building Q, which was built in the Isin-Larsa period.<ref>MATTHIAE, PAOLO.,"Two Princely Tombs at Tell Mardikh-Ebla.", Archaeology, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 8–17, 1980</ref>
- The tomb of the princess: dating to Template:Circa Template:Sc, it is the oldest and smallest of the third kingdom tombs found.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Excavated in 1978,Template:Sfn it contained the remains of a young woman, hence the naming.Template:Sfn The dromos has steps, partially cut in the bedrock and partially paved with stones, leading to the chamber, which was achieved through the enlargement of a natural cave.Template:Sfn The tomb is the only one not pillaged;Template:Sfn it contained precious jewels and funerary objects.Template:Sfn
- The tomb of the cisterns: this tomb is the most damaged in the necropolis.Template:Sfn It consists of a double room burial; the earliest, (Q79A), was built at the same period of the tomb of the princess, and was badly damaged when the tomb was reused, and a dromos was built in the place of Q79A toward the end of the Template:Nowrap (leading to the founding of burial Q79B).Template:Sfn This was probably the resting place of a king; a club (a symbol of royal power) was discovered in Q79A.Template:Sfn
- The tomb of the lord of the goats: it is the largest in the necropolis; it includes two depositional chambers and is reached through a vertical shaft.Template:Sfn The occupier of the tomb is not known with certainty, he is called the lord of the goats by archaeologists due to the existence of a throne decorated with bronze goat heads in the tomb.Template:Sfn A silver cup that has the name of king Immeya inscribed was found in the tomb making that king the most likely owner of the burial.Template:Sfn
GovernmentEdit
Template:Further The first kingdom's government consisted of the king (styled Malikum) and the grand vizier, who headed a council of elders (Abbu) and the administration.Template:Sfn The second kingdom was also a monarchy,Template:Sfn but little is known about it because of a lack of written records.Template:Sfn The third kingdom was a city-state monarchy with reduced importance under the authority of Yamhad.Template:Sfn
Administration of the first kingdomEdit
Template:Further The queen shared the running of affairs of state with the king.Template:Sfn The crown prince was involved in internal matters and the second prince was involved in foreign affairs.Template:Sfn Most duties, including military ones, were handled by the vizier and the administration, which consisted of 13 court dignitaries – each of whom controlled between 400 and 800 men forming a bureaucracy with 11,700 people.Template:Sfn Each of the four quarters of the lower city was governed by a chief inspector and many deputies.Template:Sfn To oversee royal interest, the king employed agents (mashkim), collectors (ur) and messengers (kas).Template:Sfn
Administrative divisionsEdit
Many client kingdoms owed allegiance to Ebla and each was ruled by its own king (En); those vassal kings were highly autonomous, paying tribute and supplying military assistance to Ebla.Template:Sfn The administrative center in the capital was named the "SA.ZA"; it included the royal palaces, storerooms and some temples.Template:Sfn Regions beyond the walls of the capital were collectively named in Eblaite texts "uru-bar" (literally meaning outside of the city).Template:Sfn The villages and towns under the central authority were either ruled directly from the capital,Template:Sfn or had appointed officials.Template:Sfn The titles of the civil servants do not clearly define the bearer's responsibilities and authority as each town had its own political traditions.Template:Sfn
- Lugal: while in Mesopotamia a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} designated a king, in Ebla it designated a governor who was directly under the authority of the capital.Template:Sfn The nature of this title as part of Eblaite bureaucracy is ambiguous; each {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was under the authority of the grand vizier,Template:Sfn and the bearers ruled cities directly under the authority of the capital and they all brought goods to be kept in Ebla's storehouses.Template:Sfn Pettinato counted 14 different Template:Transliteration in the Eblaite administrative texts and deduced that the kingdom was divided into fourteen departments; two of them in the capital itself and the remaining twelve spanned the rest of the kingdom.Template:Sfn
- Ugula: the title is translated as superintendent; some Template:Transliteration were independent rulers and some represented the highest authority of a tribal group.Template:Sfn Many cities had an appointed Template:Transliteration as their head of administration such as the city of Darum.Template:Sfn
The choraEdit
The regions under the direct control of the king that were economically vital for the capital are called the "chora" by archaeologists.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Regions under direct control of the king extended beyond the chora and it is difficult to determine the exact size of the kingdom and the chora due to the constant military expansion of Ebla which added new territories; some of those were ruled directly while others were allowed to retain their own rulers as vassals.Template:Sfn
Generally, the chora is the core region of Ebla that includes the economic hinterland supporting the capital.Template:Sfn It includes the cities and villages where the king or his vizier had palaces, towns that included important sanctuaries of gods related to the royal institution, towns visited by the monarch during the different rituals he participated in (such as the renewal of royalty ritual),<ref group="note">The ritual had the king and the queen visiting Ninas, and making offerings to royal ancestors.Template:Sfn</ref> and other cities such as the ones where textiles were delivered.Template:Sfn The chora spans around 3000 km2; from west to east it includes the plains east of Jabal Zawiya, the Maṭkh swamp, al-Hass mountain and mount Shabīth.Template:Sfn Areas directly on the borders of the chora such as al-Ghab, al-Rouge plain and al-Jabbul have close cultural affinity with the chora.Template:Sfn
People, language, and cultureEdit
The first and second kingdomsEdit
Mardikh II's periods shared the same culture.Template:Sfn the population of Ebla during Mardikh IIB1 (2400–2300 BC) is estimated to have numbered around 40,000 in the capital, and over 200,000 people in the entire kingdom.Template:Sfn The Eblaites of Mardikh II were Semite-speakers close to their Northwestern Semitic neighbors, such as the Amorites.Template:Sfn Giovanni Pettinato said the Eblaite language, one of the oldest attested Semitic languages,Template:Sfn was a West Semitic language; Gelb and others said it was an East Semitic dialect closer to the Akkadian language.Template:Sfn Academic consensus considers Eblaite an East Semitic language which exhibits both West and East Semitic features.<ref group="note">Grammatically, Eblaite is closer to Akkadian, but lexically and in some grammatical forms, Eblaite is closer to West Semitic languages.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Ebla held several religious and social festivals, including rituals for the succession of a new king, which normally lasted for several weeks.Template:Sfn The Eblaite calendars were based on a solar year divided into twelve months.Template:Sfn Two calendars were discovered; the "old calendar" used during the reign of Igrish-Halam, and a "new calendar" introduced by vizier Ibbi-Sipish.Template:Sfn Many months were named in honor of deities; in the new calendar, "Itu be-li" was the first month of the year, and meant "the month of the lord".Template:Sfn Each year was given a name instead of a number.Template:Sfn
Women received salaries equal to those of men and could accede to important positions and head government agencies.Template:Sfn The Eblaites imported Kungas from Nagar,<ref group="note">The Kunga is a hybrid of a donkey and a female onager, which Nagar was famous for breeding.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn and used them to draw the carriages of royalty and high officials, as well as diplomatic gifts for allied cities.Template:Sfn Society was less centered around the palace and the temple than in Mesopotamian kingdoms. The Eblaite palace was designed around the courtyard, which was open toward the city, thus making the administration approachable. This contrasts with Mesopotamian palaces, which resembled citadels with narrow entrances and limited access to the external courtyard.Template:Sfn Music played an important part in the society and musicians were both locals,Template:Sfn or hired from other cities such as Mari.Template:Sfn Ebla also hired acrobats from Nagar, but later reduced their number and kept some to train local Eblaite acrobats.Template:Sfn
The third kingdomEdit
The Mardikh III population was predominately Semitic Amorite.Template:Sfn The Amorites were mentioned in the first kingdom's tablets as neighbors and as rural subjects,Template:Sfn and they came to dominate Ebla after the destruction of the second kingdom.Template:Sfn The city witnessed a great increase in construction, and many palaces, temples and fortifications were built.Template:Sfn The Amorite-speaking Eblaites worshiped many of the same deities as the Paleo-Syrian-speaking Eblaites of earlier periods,Template:Sfn and maintained the sanctity of the acropolis in the center of the city.Template:Sfn The third kingdom's iconography and royal ideology were under the influence of Yamhad's culture; kingship was received from the Yamhadite deities instead of Ishtar of Ebla, which is evident by the Eblaite seals of Indilimma's period.Template:Sfn
EconomyEdit
During the first kingdom period, the palace controlled the economy,Template:Sfn but wealthy families managed their financial affairs without government intervention.Template:Sfn The economic system was redistributive; the palace distributed food to its permanent and seasonal workers. It is estimated that around 40,000 persons contributed to this system, but in general, and unlike in Mesopotamia, land stayed in the hands of villages, which paid an annual share to the palace.Template:Sfn Agriculture was mainly pastoral; large herds of cattle were managed by the palace.Template:Sfn The city's inhabitants owned around 140,000 head of sheep and goats, and 9,000 cattle.Template:Sfn
Ebla derived its prosperity from trade;Template:Sfn its wealth was equal to that of the most important Sumerian cities,Template:Sfn and its main commercial rival was Mari.Template:Sfn Ebla's main articles of trade were probably timber from the nearby mountains, and textiles.Template:Sfn Handicrafts also appear to have been a major export, evidenced by the quantity of artifacts recovered from the palaces of the city.Template:Sfn Ebla possessed a wide commercial network reaching as far as modern-day Afghanistan.Template:Sfn It shipped textiles to Cyprus, possibly through the port of Ugarit,Template:Sfn but most of its trade seems to have been directed by river-boat towards Mesopotamia – chiefly Kish.Template:Sfn The main palace G was found to contain artifacts dating from Ancient Egypt bearing the names of the pharaohs Khafre and Pepi I.Template:Sfn
Ebla continued to be a center of trade during the second kingdom, evidenced by the surrounding cities that appeared during its period and were destroyed along with the city.<ref group="note">Archaeologist Alessandro de Maigret deduced that Ebla retained its trading position.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn Trade continued to be Ebla's main economic activity during the third kingdom; archaeological finds show there was an extensive exchange with Egypt and coastal Syrian cities such as Byblos.Template:Sfn
ReligionEdit
Ebla was a polytheistic state.Template:Sfn During the first kingdom, Eblaites worshiped their dead kings.Template:Sfn The pantheon of the first Ebla included pairs of deities and they can be separated into three genres; in the first and most common one, there were the couples, such as the deity and his female consort.Template:Sfn The second type of pairs was the divine twosomes, such as the deities that cooperate to create the cosmos, like in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian pantheons.Template:Sfn The third type included divine pairs who were actually a single deity that had two names.Template:Sfn Eblaites worshiped few Mesopotamian deities, preferring North-Western Semitic gods, some of which were unique to Ebla.Template:Sfn The first genre of pairs included Hadabal (dNI-da-KUL<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>), who was exclusive to Ebla, and his consort, Belatu ("his wife");Template:Sfn Rasap and his consort Adamma;Template:Sfn the patron gods of the city Kura, who was unique to Ebla, and his consort Barama.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The third genre included the artisan god Kamish/Tit, Kothar-wa-Khasis and the planet Venus represented by twin mountain gods; Shahar as the morning star and Shalim as the evening star.Template:Sfn
The first Eblaites worshiped many other deities, such as the Syrian goddess Ishara,<ref group="note">At the beginning of Ebla's studies, it was believed that the existence of Ishara and another god Ashtapi in Ebla's pantheon, is a proof for a Hurrian existence in the Eblaite first kingdom.Template:Sfn However it is now known that those deities were pre-Hurrian and perhaps pre-Semitic deities, later incorporated into the Hurrian pantheon.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn</ref> who was the goddess of the royal family.Template:Sfn Ishtar was also worshiped but was mentioned only five times in one of the monthly offering lists, while Ishara was far more important, appearing 40 times.Template:Sfn Other deities included Damu;<ref group="note">Probably an old Semitic deity and not identical to the Sumerian Damu.Template:Sfn</ref>Template:Sfn the Mesopotamian god Utu;Template:Sfn Ashtapi;Template:Sfn Dagan;Template:Sfn Hadad (Hadda) and his consort Halabatu ("she of Halab");Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and Shipish, the goddess of the sun who had a temple dedicated to her cult.Template:Sfn The four city gates were named after the gods Dagan, Hadda, Rasap and Utu, but it is unknown which gate had which name.Template:Sfn Overall, the offering list mentioned about 40 deities receiving sacrifices.Template:Sfn
During the third kingdom, Amorites worshiped common northern Semitic gods; the unique Eblaite deities disappeared.Template:Sfn Hadad was the most important god, while Ishtar took Ishara's place and became the city's most important deity apart from Hadad.Template:Sfn
Biblical connection theoriesEdit
At the beginning of the process of deciphering the tablets, Giovanni Pettinato made claims about possible connections between Ebla and the Bible,Template:Sfn citing alleged references in the tablets to the existence of Yahweh, the Patriarchs, Sodom and Gomorrah and other Biblical references.Template:Sfn However, much of the initial media excitement about a supposed Eblaite connections with the Bible, based on preliminary guesses and speculations by Pettinato and others, is now widely discredited and the academic consensus is that Ebla "has no bearing on the Minor Prophets, the historical accuracy of the Biblical Patriarchs, Yahweh worship, or Sodom and Gomorrah".Template:Sfn In Ebla studies, the focus has shifted away from comparisons with the Bible; Ebla is now studied as a civilization in its own right.Template:Sfn The claims led to a bitter personal and academic conflict between the scholars involved, as well as what some described as political interference by the Syrian authorities.Template:Sfn
GeneticsEdit
Ancient DNA analysis on 10 human remains dating to the Early and Middle Bronze Age from Ebla found that Eblaites were a mixture of Copper age Levantines and Mesopotamians, and were genetically similar to contemporaneous Levantines.<ref name="Yilmaz S 1175">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Haplogroup-wise, one Early Bronze Age (2700-2500 BC) individual carried haplogroup E1b1b1b2a-M123, a lineage likely linked to the diffusion of Afroasiatic languages.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Another Early Bronze Age (2572-2470 cal BCE) individual belonged to J1a2a1a2-P58, while four Middle Bronze Age (2000-1800 BC) individuals carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2-P58 (x2), G2a and the West Asian T1a1-L162 which was present since the middle PPNB Levant.<ref name="Yilmaz S 1175"/>
ExcavationsEdit
Template:Further Template:Multiple image In 1964, Italian archaeologists from the University of Rome La Sapienza under the direction of Paolo Matthiae began excavating at Tell Mardikh.Template:Sfn In 1968, they recovered a statue dedicated to the goddess Ishtar bearing the name of Ibbit-Lim, mentioning him as king of Ebla.Template:Sfn That identified the city, long known from Lagashite and Akkadian inscriptions.Template:Sfn In the next decade, the team discovered a palace (palace G) dating from Template:Circa Template:Sc.Template:Sfn Finds in the palaces include a small sculpture made out of precious materials, Lapis lazuli, black stones and gold.Template:Sfn
Thirteen full and fragmentary lenticular cuneiform tablets were found in the palace throne room, thought to have been there versus the archive because of the city's fall.<ref>Archi, Alfonso. “The Tablets of the Throne Room of the Royal Palace G of Ebla.” Archiv Für Orientforschung, vol. 53, pp. 9–18, 2015</ref> In a storeroom off the throne room, the nearly complete standard of the queen and fragments believed to come from the standard of the king were found.<ref>Frances Pinnock. “THE KING’S STANDARD FROM EBLA PALACE G.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 67, pp. 3–22, 2015</ref> Other artifacts included wood furniture inlaid with mother-of-pearl and composite statues created from colored stones.Template:Sfn A silver bowl bearing king Immeya's name was recovered from the "Tomb of the Lord of the Goats", together with Egyptian jewels and an Egyptian ceremonial mace presented by pharaoh Hotepibre.Template:Sfn
About 17,000 cuneiform tablet fragments were discovered; when put together, they constitute 2,500 complete tablets, making the archive of Ebla one of the biggest from the Template:NowrapTemplate:Sfn About 80% of the tablets are written using the usual Sumerian combination of logograms and phonetic signs,Template:Sfn while the others exhibited an innovative, purely phonetic representation using Sumerian cuneiform of a previously unknown Semitic language, which was called "Eblaite".Template:Sfn Bilingual Sumerian/Eblaite vocabulary lists were found among the tablets, allowing them to be translated.Template:Sfn The tablets provide many important insights into the cultural, economic and political life in northern Mesopotamia around the middle of the Template:NowrapTemplate:Sfn They also provide insight into the everyday lives of the inhabitants,Template:Sfn and contain information about state revenues, Sumerian-Eblaite dictionaries,Template:Sfn diplomatic exchanges with foreign rulers,Template:Sfn school texts, hymns and myths.Template:Sfn
LibraryEdit
The over 4000-year-old tablets constitute the oldest library ever found.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>Template:Sfn At Ebla, "the archives or library constituted an orderly collection of records at least 500 years older than any other that had been found anywhere before."<ref>Wellisch, H. H. (1981). Ebla: The World's Oldest Library. The Journal of Library History (1974-1987), 16(3), 488–500. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541212.</ref> There is evidence of their arrangement and classification.Template:Sfn The larger tablets had originally been stored on shelves, but had fallen onto the floor when the palace was destroyed.Template:Sfn The locations of the fallen tablets allowed the excavators to reconstruct their original positions on the shelves.<ref>Archi, Alfonso., "Position of the Tablets of Ebla.", Orientalia, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 67–69, 1988</ref> They found the tablets had originally been shelved according to subject.Template:Sfn
These features were absent from earlier Sumerian excavations. Sophisticated techniques of arrangement of texts, coupled with their composition, evidence the great antiquity of archival and library practices, which may be far older than was assumed to be the case before the discovery of the Ebla library.Template:Sfn A sizable portion of the tablets contain literary and lexicographic texts; evidence seems to suggest the collection also served – at least partially – as a true library rather than a collection of archives intended solely for use by the kings, their ministers, and their bureaucracy.Template:Sfn The tablets show evidence of the early transcription of texts into foreign languages and scripts, classification and cataloging for easier retrieval, and arrangement by size, form and content.Template:Sfn The Ebla tablets have thus provided scholars with new insights into the origin of library practices that were in use 4,500 years ago.Template:Sfn
While the absolute chronology of the archive is not yet certain a relative chronology for the 50-year period has been established. Because Ebla did not use Mesopotamian style year names or year numbers and the name of rulers was rarely mentioned in the texts scholars used script changes, grammar changes, and most importantly a prosopography of the members of the court, especially the wives and daughters of the king. The most relevant tablets for this effort were a series of yearly metal accounts and monthly linen accounts.<ref>Biga, Maria Giovanna, and Francesco Pomponio., "Elements for a Chronological Division of the Administrative Documentation of Ebla.", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 179–201, 1990</ref><ref>Biga, Maria Giovanna., "The Reconstruction of a Relative Chronology for the Ebla Texts.", Orientalia, vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 345–67, 2003</ref>
Most of the recovered tablets and tablet fragments were stored at the Idlib Regional Museum in Syria. Their current condition is unknown.
LegacyEdit
Ebla's first kingdom is an example of early Syrian centralized states,Template:Sfn and is considered one of the earliest empires by scholars,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn such as Samuel Finer,Template:Sfn and Karl Moore, who consider it the first-recorded world power.Template:Sfn Ebla's discovery changed the former view of Syria's history as a bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt; it proved the region was a center of civilization in its own right.Template:Sfn
Syrian Civil WarEdit
As a result of the Syrian Civil War, excavations of Ebla stopped in March 2011.Template:Sfn By 2013, it was under control of an opposition armed group called Arrows of the Right, who took advantage of its elevated location to use it as an observation point to watch for incoming government air attacks, as well as attempting to protect the site from looting.Template:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Many tunnels were dug and a crypt full of human remains was discovered; the remains were scattered and discarded by the robbers, who hoped to find jewelry and other precious artifacts.Template:Sfn Besides excavations by rebels, nearby villagers also began digging at the site with the aim of finding and looting artifacts; some villagers removed carloads of soil suitable for making ceramic liners for bread-baking ovens from the tunnels.Template:Sfn<ref>Casana J, Laugier EJ (2017) Satellite imagery-based monitoring of archaeological site damage in the Syrian civil war. PLoS ONE 12(11): e0188589. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188589</ref>
The site was captured by the Syrian Armed Forces on 30 January 2020 during the 5th Northwestern Syria offensive, along with surrounding villages.<ref name="Los Angeles Times 2019 mass exodus">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
See alsoEdit
- Azi (scribe)
- Biblical archaeology
- Cities of the Ancient Near East
- Mari, Syria
- Short chronology timeline
NotesEdit
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ReferencesEdit
BibliographyEdit
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- Paolo Matthiae, Richard Bates, Mattia Bilardello, Anita Weston, Ebla: Archaeology and History, 2020 Template:ISBN
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Further readingEdit
- Bonechi, Marco. "More on the Ebla gatekeepers", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 106, pp. 33–36, 2012
- Catagnoti, Amalia. "In the aftermath of the war. The truce between Ebla and Mari (ARET XVI 30) and the ransom of prisoners", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 106, pp. 45–63, 2012
- [1] Gori, Fiammetta, "Numeracy in early syro-mesopotamia. A study of accounting practices from Fāra to Ebla", University of Verona Dissertation, 2024
- Maiocchi, Massimo. "Decorative Parts and Precious Artifacts at Ebla", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 62, pp. 1–24, 2010
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- Pinnock, Frances. "Ebla and Ur: Relations, Exchanges and Contacts between Two Great Capitals of the Ancient Near East.", Iraq, vol. 68, pp. 85–97, 2006
- [2] Pinnock, Frances. "The Urban Landscape of Old Syrian Ebla." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 53, pp. 13–33, 2001
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External linksEdit
- Ebla (Tell Mardikh) Suggestion to have Ebla (Tell Mardikh) recognized as a UNESCO world heritage site
- Ebla - Tell Mardikh with photos and plans of the digs Template:In lang
- Two Weights from Temple N at Tell Mardikh-Ebla, by E. Ascalone and L. Peyronel (pdf)
Template:Ancient states and regions of the Levant Template:Syria topics Template:Idlib Governorate Template:Early Rulers of Mesopotamia Template:Authority control