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Euro

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The euro (symbol: €; currency code: EUR) is the official currency of 20 of the Template:EUnum member states of the European Union. This group of states is officially known as the euro area or, more commonly, the eurozone. The euro is divided into 100 euro cents.<ref name="EC Euro Area">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="EC Euro1 euro cent coin Area 2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The currency is also used officially by the institutions of the European Union, by four European microstates that are not EU members,<ref name="EC Euro1 euro cent coin Area 2" /> the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, as well as unilaterally by Montenegro and Kosovo. Outside Europe, a number of special territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency.

The euro is used by 350 million people in Europe and additionally, over 200 million people worldwide use currencies pegged to the euro.<ref name="population_jan_2023">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is the second-largest reserve currency as well as the second-most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Template:As of with more than €1.3 trillion in circulation, the euro has one of the highest combined values of banknotes and coins in circulation in the world.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The name euro was officially adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid.<ref name="madrid1995">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The euro was introduced to world financial markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999, replacing the former European Currency Unit (ECU) at a ratio of 1:1 (US$1.1743 at the time). Physical euro coins and banknotes entered into circulation on 1 January 2002, making it the day-to-day operating currency of its original members, and by March 2002 it had completely replaced the former currencies.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Between December 1999 and December 2002, the euro traded below the US dollar, but has since traded near parity with or above the US dollar, peaking at US$1.60 on 18 July 2008 and since then returning near to its original issue rate. On 13 July 2022, the two currencies hit parity for the first time in nearly two decades due in part to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.<ref name="NYTimes-2022">Template:Cite news</ref> Then, in September 2022, the US dollar again had a face value higher than the euro, at around US$0.95 per euro.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

CharacteristicsEdit

AdministrationEdit

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File:Seat of the European Central Bank and Frankfurt Skyline at dawn 20150422 1.jpg
Seat of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt, Germany

The euro is managed and administered by the European Central Bank and the Eurosystem, composed of the central banks of the eurozone countries. As an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of euro banknotes and coins in all member states, and the operation of the eurozone payment systems.

Through their ratification of the 1992 Maastricht Treaty (or subsequent treaties of accession), most EU member states committed to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, although not all participating states have done so. Denmark has negotiated exemptions,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> while Sweden (which joined the EU in 1995, after the Maastricht Treaty was signed) turned down the euro in a 2003 non-binding referendum, and has circumvented its commitment to adopt the euro by not meeting the monetary and budgetary requirements. All nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. The Maastricht Treaty was amended by the 2001 Treaty of Nice, which closed the gaps and loopholes in the Maastricht and Rome Treaties.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Countries that use the euroEdit

Template:Further The euro is the official currency of 43 countries and territories:

Eurozone membersEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The 20 participating members are:
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Special territories of members of the European Economic AreaEdit

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Overseas Territories:

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Special Autonomous Territories:

Other usersEdit

Microstates with a monetary agreement: Template:Div col

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British Overseas Territory: Template:Div col

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Unilateral adopters: Template:Div col

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EU members not using the euroEdit

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Committed to adopt the euro Edit

Template:See also The following six EU member states, representing 95 million people, committed themselves in their respective Treaty of Accession to adopt the euro. However they do not have a deadline to do so and can delay the process by deliberately not complying with the convergence criteria (such as by not meeting the convergence criteria to join ERM II). Bulgaria and Romania are actively working to adopt the euro, while the four remaining states do not have a migration plan in progress.

  • Template:Flagcountry: The Bulgarian government aims to replace the Bulgarian lev with the euro on 1 January 2026, subject to approval by all relevant EU institutions following the publication of an extraordinary convergence report due in mid-2025.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In November 2023, the design of the national side of the Bulgarian euro coins was approved by the Bulgarian National Bank.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Opt-outsEdit

Template:See also The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 included protocols on Denmark and the United Kingdom, giving them opt-outs with the right to decide if and when they would adopt the euro.<ref name="UK">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Coins and banknotesEdit

CoinsEdit

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File:Croatian euro coins (10).jpg
Euro coins with Croatian national sides

The euro is divided into 100 cents (also referred to as euro cents, especially when distinguishing them from other currencies, and referred to as such on the common side of all cent coins). In Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage.<ref name="ec.europa.eu">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Otherwise, normal English plurals are used,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> with many local variations such as centime in France.

All circulating coins have a common side showing the denomination or value, and a map in the background. Due to the linguistic plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used (as opposed to the less common Greek or Cyrillic) and Arabic numerals (other text is used on national sides in national languages, but other text on the common side is avoided). For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, the map only showed the 15 member states of the union as of 2002. Beginning in 2007 or 2008 (depending on the country), the old map was replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the EU.<ref name="europa-common_sides">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, however, keep their old design, showing a geographical map of Europe with the EU member states as of 2002, raised somewhat above the rest of the map. All common sides were designed by Luc Luycx. The coins also have a national side showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued the coin. Euro coins from any member state may be freely used in any nation that has adopted the euro.

The coins are issued in denominations of €2, €1, 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c. To avoid the use of the two smallest coins, some cash transactions are rounded to the nearest five cents in the Netherlands and Ireland<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> (by voluntary agreement) and in Finland and Italy (by law).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This practice is discouraged by the commission, as is the practice of certain shops of refusing to accept high-value euro notes.<ref>Pop, Valentina (22 March 2010) "Commission frowns on shop signs that say: '€500 notes not acceptedTemplate:'", EU Observer</ref>

Commemorative coins with €2 face value have been issued with changes to the design of the national side of the coin. These include both commonly issued coins, such as the €2 commemorative coin for the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Rome, and nationally issued coins, such as the coin to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics issued by Greece. These coins are legal tender throughout the eurozone. Collector coins with various other denominations have been issued as well, but these are not intended for general circulation, and they are legal tender only in the member state that issued them.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

File:1 Cent-Vatican-Franciscus-Series 1.jpg 1€-Vatican_Franciscus-Revers File:1€-Vatican-Benedikt XVI-Revers.jpg

Vatican Euro coins with images of Pope Francis and Pope Benedict XVI

Coin mintingEdit

A number of institutions are authorised to mint euro coins: Template:Div col

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BanknotesEdit

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File:Various Euro banknotes.jpg
Euro banknotes of various denominations

The design for the euro banknotes has common designs on both sides. The design was created by the Austrian designer Robert Kalina.<ref name="euro96">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Notes are issued in €500, €200, €100, €50, €20, €10, and €5. Each banknote has its own colour and is dedicated to an artistic period of European architecture. The front of the note features windows or gateways while the back has bridges, symbolising links between states in the union and with the future. While the designs are supposed to be devoid of any identifiable characteristics, the initial designs by Robert Kalina were of specific bridges, including the Rialto and the Pont de Neuilly, and were subsequently rendered more generic; the final designs still bear very close similarities to their specific prototypes; thus they are not truly generic. The monuments looked similar enough to different national monuments to please everyone.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The Europa series, or second series, consists of six denominations and no longer includes the €500 with issuance discontinued as of 27 April 2019.<ref name="Bank">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, both the first and the second series of euro banknotes, including the €500, remain legal tender throughout the euro area.<ref name="Bank"/>

In December 2021, the ECB announced its plans to redesign euro banknotes by 2024. A theme advisory group, made up of one member from each euro area country, was selected to submit theme proposals to the ECB. The proposals will be voted on by the public; a design competition will also be held.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Issuing modalities for banknotesEdit

Since 1 January 2002, the national central banks (NCBs) and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis.<ref name="Scheller">Template:Cite book</ref> Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the total value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem.<ref name="Scheller"/> In practice, the ECB's banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs, thereby incurring matching liabilities vis-à-vis the ECB. These liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The other 92% of euro banknotes are issued by the NCBs in proportion to their respective shares of the ECB capital key,<ref name="Scheller"/> calculated using national share of European Union (EU) population and national share of EU GDP, equally weighted.<ref> {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} </ref>

Image Value Year Dimensions
(millimetres)		 Main colour Design Printer code position
Obverse Reverse Architecture Century
File:EUR 5 obverse (2013 issue).png File:EUR 5 reverse (2013 issue).png €5Template:Anchor 2013 120 × 62 mm citation CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

Classical 8th BC–4th AD Top right
File:EUR 10 obverse (2014 issue).png File:EUR 10 reverse (2014 issue).png €10Template:Anchor 2014 127 × 67 mm citation CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

Romanesque 11–12th Top right
File:The Europa series 20 € obverse side.jpg File:The Europa series 20 € reverse side.jpg €20Template:Anchor 2015 133 × 72 mm citation CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

Gothic 13–14th Top right
File:The Europa series 50 € obverse side.png File:The Europa series 50 € reverse side.png €50Template:Anchor 2017 140 × 77 mm citation CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

Renaissance 15–16th Top right
File:The Europa series 100 € obverse side.jpg File:The Europa series 100 € reverse side.jpg €100Template:Anchor 2019 147 × 77 mm citation CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

Baroque & Rococo 17–18th Top right
File:The Europa series 200 € obverse side.jpg File:The Europa series 200 € reverse side.jpg €200Template:Anchor 2019 153 × 77 mm citation CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

Art Nouveau 19th Top right
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Banknote printingEdit

Member states are authorised to print or to commission bank note printing. Template:As of, these are the printers: Template:Div col

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Payments clearing, electronic funds transferEdit

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Capital within the EU may be transferred in any amount from one state to another. All intra-Union transfers in euro are treated as domestic transactions and bear the corresponding domestic transfer costs.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This includes all member states of the EU, even those outside the eurozone providing the transactions are carried out in euro.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Credit/debit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the eurozone are also treated as domestic transactions; however paper-based payment orders, like cheques, have not been standardised so these are still domestic-based. The ECB has also set up a clearing system, T2 since March 2023, for large euro transactions.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

HistoryEdit

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IntroductionEdit

Template:Euro adoption past

The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty. To participate in the currency, member states are meant to meet strict criteria, such as a budget deficit of less than 3% of their GDP, a debt ratio of less than 60% of GDP (both of which were ultimately widely flouted after introduction), low inflation, and interest rates close to the EU average. In the Maastricht Treaty, the United Kingdom and Denmark were granted exemptions per their request from moving to the stage of monetary union which resulted in the introduction of the euro (see also United Kingdom and the euro).

The name "euro" was officially adopted in Madrid on 16 December 1995.<ref name="madrid1995"/> Belgian Esperantist Germain Pirlot, a former teacher of French and history, is credited with naming the new currency by sending a letter to then President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, suggesting the name "euro" on 4 August 1995.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro. The definitive values of one euro in terms of the exchange rates at which the currency entered the euro are shown in the table.

The rates were determined by the Council of the European Union,Template:Efn based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on 31 December 1998. They were set so that one European Currency Unit (ECU) would equal one euro. The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right. They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally pound sterling) that day.

The procedure used to fix the conversion rate between the Greek drachma and the euro was different since the euro by then was already two years old. While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand.Template:Efn

The currency was introduced in non-physical form (traveller's cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.) at midnight on 1 January 1999, when the national currencies of participating countries (the eurozone) ceased to exist independently. Their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other. The euro thus became the successor to the European Currency Unit (ECU). The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as legal tender until new euro notes and coins were introduced on 1 January 2002.

The changeover period during which the former currencies' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until 28 February 2002. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in Germany, where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, though the exchange period lasted for two months more. Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from several years to indefinitely (the latter for Austria, Germany, Ireland, Estonia and Latvia in banknotes and coins, and for Belgium, Luxembourg, Slovenia and Slovakia in banknotes only). The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after 31 December 2002, although banknotes remained exchangeable until 2022.

Currency signEdit

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File:Euro Construction.svg
Graphic construction of the euro logo

A special euro currency sign (€) was designed after a public survey had narrowed ten of the original thirty proposals down to two. The President of the European Commission at the time (Jacques Santer) and the European Commissioner with responsibility for the euro (Yves-Thibault de Silguy) then chose the winning design.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Regarding the symbol, the European Commission stated on behalf of the European Union:

<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />

The symbol € is based on the Greek letter epsilon (Є), with the first letter in the word "Europe" and with 2 parallel lines signifying stability.{{#if:Directorate-General for Communication<ref name="design, rules">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>|{{#if:|}}

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The European Commission also specified a euro logo with exact proportions.<ref name="design, rules" /> Placement of the currency sign relative to the numeric amount varies from state to state, but for texts in English published by EU institutions, the symbol (or the ISO-standard "EUR") should precede the amount.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Eurozone crisisEdit

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File:Europe bonds sovereign debt crisis.webp
European 10 year bonds, before the Great Recession in Europe bonds floated together in parity Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line

Following the 2008 financial crisis, fears of a sovereign default developed in 2009 among investors concerning some European states, with the situation becoming particularly tense in early 2010.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Greece was most acutely affected, but fellow Eurozone members Cyprus, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were also significantly affected.<ref>European Debt Crisis Fast Facts, CNN Library (last updated 22 January 2017).</ref><ref>Ricardo Reis, Looking for a Success in the Euro Crisis Adjustment Programs: The Case of Portugal, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Brookings Institution (Fall 2015), p. 433.</ref> All these countries used EU funds except Italy, which is a major donor to the EFSF.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> To be included in the eurozone, countries had to fulfil certain convergence criteria, but the meaningfulness of such criteria was diminished by the fact it was not enforced with the same level of strictness among countries.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

According to the Economist Intelligence Unit in 2011, "[I]f the [euro area] is treated as a single entity, its [economic and fiscal] position looks no worse and in some respects, rather better than that of the US or the UK" and the budget deficit for the euro area as a whole is much lower and the euro area's government debt/GDP ratio of 86% in 2010 was about the same level as that of the United States. "Moreover", they write, "private-sector indebtedness across the euro area as a whole is markedly lower than in the highly leveraged Anglo-Saxon economies". The authors conclude that the crisis "is as much political as economic" and the result of the fact that the euro area lacks the support of "institutional paraphernalia (and mutual bonds of solidarity) of a state".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The crisis continued with S&P downgrading the credit rating of nine euro-area countries, including France, then downgrading the entire European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) fund.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

A historical parallel – to 1931 when Germany was burdened with debt, unemployment and austerity while France and the United States were relatively strong creditors – gained attention in summer 2012<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> even as Germany received a debt-rating warning of its own.<ref>Lindner, Fabian, "Germany would do well to heed the Moody's warning shot", The Guardian, 24 July 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012.</ref><ref>Buergin, Rainer, "Germany, Juncker Push Back After Moody's Rating Outlook Cuts Template:Webarchive", washpost.bloomberg, 24 July 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012.</ref>

Direct and indirect usageEdit

Template:Further Template:Eurozone labelled map interior

Agreed direct usage with minting rightsEdit

The euro is the sole currency of 20 EU member states: Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. These countries constitute the "eurozone", some 347 million people in total Template:As of.<ref name="2013_data_sheet">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to bilateral agreements with the EU, the euro has also been designated as the sole and official currency in a further four European microstates awarded minting rights (Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City). All other EU member states (except Denmark, which has an opt-out), and any potential future members, are obliged to adopt the euro when economic conditions permit.

Agreed direct usage without minting rightsEdit

The euro is also the sole currency in three overseas territories of France that are not themselves part of the EU, namely Saint Barthélemy, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, as well as in the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Unilateral direct usageEdit

The euro has been adopted unilaterally as the sole currency of Montenegro and Kosovo. It has also been used as a foreign trading currency in Cuba since 1998,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Syria since 2006,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and Venezuela since 2018.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2009, Zimbabwe abandoned its local currency and introduced major global convertible currencies instead, including the euro and the United States dollar. The direct usage of the euro outside of the official framework of the EU affects nearly 3 million people.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Currencies pegged to the euroEdit

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File:DOLLAR AND EURO IN THE WORLD.svg
Worldwide use of the euro and the US dollar: Template:Legend Template:Legend Template:Legend Template:Legend Template:Legend Template:Legend Template:Legend Template:Legend
Note: The Belarusian rouble is pegged to the euro, Russian ruble and US dollar in a currency basket.

Outside the eurozone, two EU member states have currencies that are pegged to the euro, which is a precondition to joining the eurozone. The Danish krone and Bulgarian lev are pegged due to their participation in the ERM II.

Additionally, a total of 22 countries and territories that do not belong to the EU have currencies that are directly pegged to the euro including 14 countries in mainland Africa (CFA franc), three African island countries (Comorian franc, Cape Verdean escudo and São Tomé and Príncipe dobra (since 1 January 2010)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>), three French Pacific territories (CFP franc) and two Balkan countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark) and North Macedonia (Macedonian denar).<ref name="Cardoso"/> Additionally, the Moroccan dirham is tied to a basket of currencies, including the euro and the US dollar, with the euro given the highest weighting.

These countries generally had previously implemented a currency peg to one of the major European currencies (e.g. the French franc, Deutsche Mark or Portuguese escudo), and when these currencies were replaced by the euro their currencies became pegged to the euro. Pegging a country's currency to a major currency is regarded as a safety measure, especially for currencies of areas with weak economies, as the euro is seen as a stable currency, prevents runaway inflation, and encourages foreign investment due to its stability.

In total, Template:As of, 182 million people in Africa use a currency pegged to the euro, 27 million people outside the eurozone in Europe, and another 545,000 people on Pacific islands.<ref name="2013_data_sheet"/>

Since 2005, stamps issued by the Sovereign Military Order of Malta have been denominated in euros, although the Order's official currency remains the Maltese scudo.<ref name=smom>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Maltese scudo itself is pegged to the euro and is only recognised as legal tender within the Order.

The currency of a number of states is pegged to the euro. These states are:Template:Citation needed Template:Div col

North America

Europe

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Oceania

Africa

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Use as reserve currencyEdit

Since its introduction in 1999, the euro has been the second most widely held international reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. The share of the euro as a reserve currency increased from 18% in 1999 to 27% in 2008. Over this period, the share held in U.S. dollar fell from 71% to 64% and that held in RMB fell from 6.4% to 3.3%. The euro inherited and built on the status of the Deutsche Mark as the second most important reserve currency. The euro remains underweight as a reserve currency in advanced economies while overweight in emerging and developing economies: according to the International Monetary Fund<ref name="external1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the total of euro held as a reserve in the world at the end of 2008 was equal to $1.1 trillion or €850 billion, with a share of 22% of all currency reserves in advanced economies, but a total of 31% of all currency reserves in emerging and developing economies.

The possibility of the euro becoming the first international reserve currency has been debated among economists.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan gave his opinion in September 2007 that it was "absolutely conceivable that the euro will replace the US dollar as reserve currency, or will be traded as an equally important reserve currency".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In contrast to Greenspan's 2007 assessment, the euro's increase in the share of the worldwide currency reserve basket has slowed considerably since 2007 and since the beginning of the worldwide credit crunch related recession and European sovereign-debt crisis.<ref name="external1"/>

EconomicsEdit

File:Euro Monetary Policy.webp
Euro Monetary policy Template:Legend Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line

Optimal currency areaEdit

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In economics, an optimum currency area, or region (OCA or OCR), is a geographical region in which it would maximise economic efficiency to have the entire region share a single currency. There are two models, both proposed by Robert Mundell: the stationary expectations model and the international risk sharing model. Mundell himself advocates the international risk sharing model and thus concludes in favour of the euro.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, even before the creation of the single currency, there were concerns over diverging economies. Before the late-2000s recession it was considered unlikely that a state would leave the euro or the whole zone would collapse.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However the Greek government-debt crisis led to former British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw claiming the eurozone could not last in its current form.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Part of the problem seems to be the rules that were created when the euro was set up. John Lanchester, writing for The New Yorker, explains it: <templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />

The guiding principle of the currency, which opened for business in 1999, were supposed to be a set of rules to limit a country's annual deficit to three per cent of gross domestic product, and the total accumulated debt to sixty per cent of G.D.P. It was a nice idea, but by 2004 the two biggest economies in the euro zone, Germany and France, had broken the rules for three years in a row.<ref>John Lanchester, "Euro Science", The New Yorker, 10 October 2011.</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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Increasing business cycle divergence across the Eurozone over the last decades implies a decreasing optimum currency area.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Transaction costs and risksEdit

The most obvious benefit of adopting a single currency is to remove the cost of exchanging currency, theoretically allowing businesses and individuals to consummate previously unprofitable trades. For consumers, banks in the eurozone must charge the same for intra-member cross-border transactions as purely domestic transactions for electronic payments (e.g., credit cards, debit cards and cash machine withdrawals).

Financial markets on the continent are expected to be far more liquid and flexible than they were in the past. The reduction in cross-border transaction costs will allow larger banking firms to provide a wider array of banking services that can compete across and beyond the eurozone. However, although transaction costs were reduced, some studies have shown that risk aversion has increased during the last 40 years in the Eurozone.<ref>Benchimol, J., 2014. Risk aversion in the Eurozone, Research in Economics, vol. 68, issue 1, pp. 40–56.</ref>

Price parityEdit

Another effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices—in particular in price levels—should decrease because of the law of one price. Differences in prices can trigger arbitrage, i.e., speculative trade in a commodity across borders purely to exploit the price differential. Therefore, prices on commonly traded goods are likely to converge, causing inflation in some regions and deflation in others during the transition. Some evidence of this has been observed in specific eurozone markets.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Macroeconomic stabilityEdit

Before the introduction of the euro, some countries had successfully contained inflation, which was then seen as a major economic problem, by establishing largely independent central banks. One such bank was the Bundesbank in Germany; the European Central Bank was modelled on the Bundesbank.<ref name="bundesbank">Template:Cite book</ref>

The euro has come under criticism due to its regulation, lack of flexibility and rigidity towards sharing member states on issues such as nominal interest rates.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Many national and corporate bonds denominated in euro are significantly more liquid and have lower interest rates than was historically the case when denominated in national currencies. While increased liquidity may lower the nominal interest rate on the bond, denominating the bond in a currency with low levels of inflation arguably plays a much larger role. A credible commitment to low levels of inflation and a stable debt reduces the risk that the value of the debt will be eroded by higher levels of inflation or default in the future, allowing debt to be issued at a lower nominal interest rate.

There is also a cost in structurally keeping inflation lower than in the United States, United Kingdom, and China. The result is that seen from those countries, the euro has become expensive, making European products increasingly expensive for its largest importers; hence export from the eurozone becomes more difficult.

In general, those in Europe who own large amounts of euro are served by high stability and low inflation.

A monetary union means states in that union lose the main mechanism of recovery of their international competitiveness by weakening (depreciating) their currency. When wages become too high compared to productivity in the exports sector, then these exports become more expensive and they are crowded out from the market within a country and abroad. This drives the fall of employment and output in the exports sector and fall of trade and current account balances. Fall of output and employment in the tradable goods sector may be offset by the growth of non-exports sectors, especially in construction and services. Increased purchases abroad and negative current account balances can be financed without a problem as long as credit is cheap.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The need to finance trade deficit weakens currency, making exports automatically more attractive in a country and abroad. A state in a monetary union cannot use weakening of currency to recover its international competitiveness. To achieve this a state has to reduce prices, including wages (deflation). This could result in high unemployment and lower incomes as it was during the European sovereign-debt crisis.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

TradeEdit

The euro increased price transparency and stimulated cross-border trade.<ref name="Eichengreen-2019">Template:Cite book</ref> A 2009 consensus from the studies of the introduction of the euro concluded that it has increased trade within the eurozone by 5% to 10%,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and a meta-analysis of all available studies on the effect of introduction of the euro on increased trade suggests that the prevalence of positive estimates is caused by publication bias and that the underlying effect may be negligible.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Although a more recent meta-analysis shows that publication bias decreases over time and that there are positive trade effects from the introduction of the euro, as long as results from before 2010 are taken into account. This may be because of the inclusion of the 2008 financial crisis and ongoing integration within the EU.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Furthermore, older studies based on certain methods of analysis of main trends reflecting general cohesion policies in Europe that started before, and continue after implementing the common currency find no effect on trade.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These results suggest that other policies aimed at European integration might be the source of observed increase in trade. According to Barry Eichengreen, studies disagree on the magnitude of the effect of the euro on trade, but they agree that it did have an effect.<ref name="Eichengreen-2019"/>

InvestmentEdit

Physical investment seems to have increased by 5% in the eurozone due to the introduction.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Regarding foreign direct investment, a study found that the intra-eurozone FDI stocks have increased by about 20% during the first four years of the EMU.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Concerning the effect on corporate investment, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has resulted in an increase in investment rates and that it has made it easier for firms to access financing in Europe. The euro has most specifically stimulated investment in companies that come from countries that previously had weak currencies. A study found that the introduction of the euro accounts for 22% of the investment rate after 1998 in countries that previously had a weak currency.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

InflationEdit

File:Euro inflation.webp
Euro Zone inflation

The introduction of the euro has led to extensive discussion about its possible effect on inflation. In the short term, there was a widespread impression in the population of the eurozone that the introduction of the euro had led to an increase in prices, but this impression was not confirmed by general indices of inflation and other studies.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A study of this paradox found that this was due to an asymmetric effect of the introduction of the euro on prices: while it had no effect on most goods, it had an effect on cheap goods which have seen their price round up after the introduction of the euro. The study found that consumers based their beliefs on inflation of those cheap goods which are frequently purchased.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It has also been suggested that the jump in small prices may be because prior to the introduction, retailers made fewer upward adjustments and waited for the introduction of the euro to do so.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Based on the introduction of the euro as the official currency in Croatia in 2023, the ECB argues that inflation due to a change of currency is a one-time effect of limited impact.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Exchange rate riskEdit

One of the advantages of the adoption of a common currency is the reduction of the risk associated with changes in currency exchange rates.<ref name="Eichengreen-2019"/> It has been found that the introduction of the euro created "significant reductions in market risk exposures for nonfinancial firms both in and outside Europe".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These reductions in market risk "were concentrated in firms domiciled in the eurozone and in non-euro firms with a high fraction of foreign sales or assets in Europe".

Financial integrationEdit

The introduction of the euro increased financial integration within Europe, which helped stimulate growth of a European securities market (bond markets are characterized by economies of scale dynamics).<ref name="Eichengreen-2019"/> According to a study on this question, it has "significantly reshaped the European financial system, especially with respect to the securities markets [...] However, the real and policy barriers to integration in the retail and corporate banking sectors remain significant, even if the wholesale end of banking has been largely integrated."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Specifically, the euro has significantly decreased the cost of trade in bonds, equity, and banking assets within the eurozone.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> On a global level, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has led to an integration in terms of investment in bond portfolios, with eurozone countries lending and borrowing more between each other than with other countries.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Financial integration made it cheaper for European companies to borrow.<ref name="Eichengreen-2019"/> Banks, firms and households could also invest more easily outside of their own country, thus creating greater international risk-sharing.<ref name="Eichengreen-2019"/>

Effect on interest ratesEdit

File:Long-term interest rates of eurozone countries since 1993.png
Secondary market yields of government bonds with maturities of close to 10 years

As of January 2014, and since the introduction of the euro, interest rates of most member countries (particularly those with a weak currency) have decreased. Some of these countries had the most serious sovereign financing problems.

The effect of declining interest rates, combined with excess liquidity continually provided by the ECB, made it easier for banks within the countries in which interest rates fell the most, and their linked sovereigns, to borrow significant amounts (above the 3% of GDP budget deficit imposed on the eurozone initially) and significantly inflate their public and private debt levels.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Following the 2008 financial crisis, governments in these countries found it necessary to bail out or nationalise their privately held banks to prevent systemic failure of the banking system when underlying hard or financial asset values were found to be grossly inflated and sometimes so nearly worthless there was no liquid market for them.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This further increased the already high levels of public debt to a level the markets began to consider unsustainable, via increasing government bond interest rates, producing the ongoing European sovereign-debt crisis.

Price convergenceEdit

The evidence on the convergence of prices in the eurozone with the introduction of the euro is mixed. Several studies failed to find any evidence of convergence following the introduction of the euro after a phase of convergence in the early 1990s.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Other studies have found evidence of price convergence,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> in particular for cars.<ref>Gil-Pareja, Salvador, and Simón Sosvilla-Rivero, "Price Convergence in the European Car Market", FEDEA, November 2005.</ref> A possible reason for the divergence between the different studies is that the processes of convergence may not have been linear, slowing down substantially between 2000 and 2003, and resurfacing after 2003 as suggested by a recent study (2009).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

TourismEdit

A study suggests that the introduction of the euro has had a positive effect on the amount of tourist travel within the EMU, with an increase of 6.5%.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Exchange ratesEdit

Flexible exchange ratesEdit

The ECB targets interest rates rather than exchange rates and in general, does not intervene on the foreign exchange rate markets. This is because of the implications of the Mundell–Fleming model, which implies a central bank cannot (without capital controls) maintain interest rate and exchange rate targets simultaneously, because increasing the money supply results in a depreciation of the currency. In the years following the Single European Act, the EU has liberalised its capital markets and, as the ECB has inflation targeting as its monetary policy, the exchange-rate regime of the euro is floating.

Against other major currenciesEdit

The euro is the second-most widely held reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. After its introduction on 4 January 1999 its exchange rate against the other major currencies fell reaching its lowest exchange rates in 2000 (3 May vs sterling, 25 October vs the U.S. dollar, 26 October vs Japanese yen). Afterwards it regained and its exchange rate reached its historical highest point in 2008 (15 July vs US dollar, 23 July vs Japanese yen, 29 December vs sterling). With the onset of the 2008 financial crisis, the euro initially fell, to regain later. Despite pressure due to the European sovereign-debt crisis, the euro remained stable.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In November 2011 the euro's exchange rate index – measured against currencies of the bloc's major trading partners – was trading almost two percent higher on the year, approximately at the same level as it was before the crisis began in 2007.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In mid July 2022, the euro and the US dollar traded at par for a short period of time during an episode of dollar appreciation.<ref name="NYTimes-2022" /> On 11 July 2024, it recorded a new high against the Japanese yen during a long period of depreciation of the latter.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

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  • Current and historical exchange rates against 32 other currencies (European Central Bank): link

Template:Exchange Rate

Political considerationsEdit

Besides the economic motivations to the introduction of the euro, its creation was also partly justified as a way to foster a closer sense of joint identity between European citizens. Statements about this goal were for instance made by Wim Duisenberg, European Central Bank Governor, in 1998,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Laurent Fabius, French Finance Minister, in 2000,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and Romano Prodi, President of the European Commission, in 2002.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, 15 years after the introduction of the euro, a study found no evidence that it has had any effect on a shared sense of European identity.<ref name=EER>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Public support for the euro by country according to Eurobarometer 2024:<ref name="i768">Template:Cite report</ref>

Country For % Against %
Template:Flaglist 66 27
Template:Flaglist 82 15
Template:Flaglist 37 47
Template:Flaglist 71 24
Template:Flaglist 80 16
Template:Flaglist 30 62
Template:Flaglist 34 58
Template:Flaglist 90 8
Template:Flaglist 90 7
Template:Flaglist 74 20
Template:Flaglist 81 14
Template:Flaglist 80 16
Template:Flaglist 65 28
Template:Flaglist 88 7
Template:Flaglist 70 23
Template:Flaglist 85 8
Template:Flaglist 78 15
Template:Flaglist 90 8
Template:Flaglist 89 8
Template:Flaglist 84 13
Template:Flaglist 36 51
Template:Flaglist 81 13
Template:Flaglist 54 37
Template:Flaglist 86 8
Template:Flaglist 92 7
Template:Flaglist 83 11
Template:Flaglist 37 56

Euro in various official EU languagesEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The formal titles of the currency are euro for the major unit and cent for the minor (one-hundredth) unit and for official use in most eurozone languages; according to the ECB, all languages should use the same spelling for the nominative singular.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This may contradict normal rules for word formation in some languages.

Bulgaria has negotiated an exception; euro in the Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet is spelled {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) and not Template:Script (Template:Transliteration) in all official documents.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In the Greek script the term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) is used; the Greek "cent" coins are denominated in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration). Official practice for English-language EU legislation is to use the words euro and cent as both singular and plural,<ref>European Commission. "Spelling of the words "euro" and "cent" in official community languages as used in community legislative acts" (PDF). Retrieved 12 January 2009.</ref> although the European Commission's Directorate-General for Translation states that the plural forms euros and cents should be used in English.<ref>For example, see {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The word 'euro' is pronounced differently according to pronunciation rules in the individual languages applied; in German {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, in English Template:IPAc-en, in French {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, etc.

In summary:

Language(s) Name IPA
In most EU languages euro main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Bulgarian lang}} evro main}}
German lang}} main}}
Greek lang}} evró main}}
Hungarian lang}} main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Latvian lang}} main}}
Lithuanian lang}} main}}
Maltese lang}} main}}
Slovene lang}} main}}

For local phonetics, cent, use of plural and amount formatting (€6,00 or 6.00 €), see Language and the euro.

See alsoEdit

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NotesEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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Further readingEdit

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External linksEdit

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