Fonio
Fonio, also sometimes called findi or acha, is the term for two cultivated grasses in the genus Digitaria that are important crops in parts of West Africa.<ref name="nap">Template:Cite book</ref> It is a vital food source in many rural areas, especially in the mountains of Fouta Djalon, Guinea, but it is also cultivated in Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Senegal. <ref name="nap" /><ref name=":12">Cruz, Jean-François (2004). Magazine on Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture. Vol. 20. Nr. 1. pp. 16–17.</ref><ref name="td">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The global fonio market was estimated at 721,400 tonnes in 2020.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Guinea annually produces the most fonio in the world, accounting for over 75% of the world's production in 2019.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The name fonio (borrowed into English from French) is from Wolof foño.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In West Africa, the species black fonio (Digitaria iburua) and white fonio (Digitaria exilis) are cultivated; the latter is the economically more important crop.<ref name=":13">Template:Cite book</ref>
Fonio is a glumaceous monocot belonging to the grass family Poaceae and the genus Digitaria. While hundreds of these crabgrass species exist, only a few of them are produced for their grains. It is a small annual herbaceous plant with an inflorescence containing two or three racemes. The racemes have spikelets grouped in twos, threes, or fours, with a sterile and a fertile flower producing the fonio grain.<ref name=":13" /> Fonio has a short growing season and is well adjusted to harsh environments.<ref name=":12" /> The size of its root system, which can extend down to more than one meter in depth, is advantageous in periods of drought and helps with its adaptation to poor soils.<ref name=":13" /> Once considered a humble and often overlooked grain commonly known as the "cereal of the poor," fonio is now gaining attention in urban West Africa. Its unique cooking properties and nutritional benefits are sparking renewed interest in this once underrated staple.<ref name=":12" />
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TypesEdit
White fonioEdit
White fonio, Digitaria exilis, also called "hungry rice" by Europeans, is the most common of a diverse group of wild and domesticated Digitaria species that are harvested in the savannas of West Africa.<ref name=nap/> Fonio has the smallest seeds of all species of millet.<ref name=nap/> It has potential to improve nutrition, boost food security,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> foster rural development, and support sustainable use of the land.<ref name=nap/>
Nutritious, gluten-free, and high in dietary fiber,<ref name=nap/><ref name=td/><ref name=":0">Template:Cite news</ref> fonio is one of the world's fastest-growing cereals, reaching maturity in as little as six to eight weeks.<ref name=nap/> The grains are used to make porridge, couscous, bread, and beer.<ref name=nap/>
Black fonioEdit
Black fonio, D. iburua, also known as iburu, is a similar crop grown in several countries of West Africa, particularly Nigeria, Togo, and Benin.<ref name=nap/> Like white fonio, it is nutritious, fast-growing, and has the benefit of maturing before other grains, allowing for harvest during the "hungry season."<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, it contains considerably more protein compared to D. exilis.
Black fonio is mostly cultivated in rural communities and is rarely sold commercially, even in West African cities.<ref name=":1" />
Cultivation and processingEdit
Climate and attributesEdit
Fonio is cultivated in all West Africa as a staple crop.<ref name=":5">Template:Citation</ref> Guinea is the biggest producer of fonio with a production of Template:Convert and a cultivated surface area of Template:Convert in 2021, followed by Nigeria (Template:Convert) and Mali (Template:Convert).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Fonio grows in dry climates without irrigation, and is unlikely to be a successful crop in humid regions.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite book</ref> It is planted in light (sandy to stony) soils, and will grow in poor soil.<ref name=":7">Template:Citation</ref> Fonio is cultivated at sea level in Gambia, Sierra Leone and Guinea-Bissau,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> but it is otherwise mostly cultivated in altitudes ranging between Template:Convert.<ref name=":7" /> The growth cycle ranges from 70–130 days, depending on variety.<ref name=":7" /> It is mostly grown in areas with an average annual rainfall of Template:Convert.<ref name=":8">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Fonio plants are medium in height.<ref name=":5" /> Indeed, D. exilis can reach a height of Template:Convert, and D. iburua a height of Template:Convert.<ref name=":7" /> The ploidy level for the species ranges from diploid (2n), tetraploid (4n), to hexaploid (6n).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Like many other grasses, fonio has a C4 carbon fixation, which makes it drought tolerant.<ref name=":8" />
Ploughing and sowingEdit
The ploughing is done by the men by hand, animal traction or with tractors.<ref name=":7" /> The sowing is generally done by hand by the women, depending on the onset of the rainy season.<ref name=":5" /> The fonio plant grows quickly; some landrace reach maturity in 8 weeks.<ref name=":7" /> It is, however, a weak weed competitor at the beginning of its growth, so weeding is important in the first development stages.<ref name=":9">Template:Cite journal</ref>
HarvestEdit
Fonio is labor-intensive to harvest and process. In some regions, the mature fonio plants are uprooted, but the most common method is to cut the straws with knives and sickles which often leads to wounds on the hands.<ref name=":9" /> Women then gather the sheaves into cylindrical stacks or horizontal beams to store the sheaves and allow them to dry before the threshing without overheating.<ref name=":10">Template:Cite book</ref> The threshing is then done by trampling on the plants or by beating the plants with rigid rods or more flexible sticks<ref name=":10" />
The fonio plants are prone to lodging in the soil, which makes potential mechanization of the harvest processes difficult.<ref name=":10" />
DehuskingEdit
After the threshing, the fonio grains are still in their husk and the small grains make husk removal difficult and time-consuming.<ref name=":6" /> Traditional methods include pounding it in a mortar with sand, and then separating the grains and sand,<ref name=":5" /> or "popping" it over a flame and then pounding it, which yields a toasted-color grain (a technique used among the Akposso<ref name=":6" />). The invention of a simple fonio husking machine offers an easier mechanical way to dehusk.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Gender roleEdit
Gender role plays a big part in the cultivation of fonio; tasks are distributed differently between men and women. Women do the weeding, the threshing by trampling, the cleaning as well as the drying and processing, while men do the harvest and the threshing by beating.<ref name=":5" /> Women's role is predominant in fonio's production.<ref name=":11">Template:Cite journal</ref> Half of the cultivation's tasks are exclusively done by women, against 14% for men.<ref name=":5" /> The tasks assigned to women require patience and meticulousness, while those assigned to men call for strength.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":11" />
Effect of processing methods on nutrient valueEdit
Before consumption, fonio grains must be processed using mechanical (dehusking, milling) or thermal (precooking, parboiling, roasting) methods. Depending on the processing method, the nutrient value may be affected.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":4">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Regarding the macronutrients, the carbohydrate content remains higher when the grains are precooked rather than roasted. The protein content is much lower after milling because the bran that gets removed contains a lot of protein. The highest protein content is achieved when parboiling. The lipid content is increased when roasted and decreased when milled or precooked.<ref name=":4" />
Regarding micronutrients, the iron and zinc content remains the highest when parboiled while milling leads to a loss due to the removal of the bran.<ref name=":4" /> Phytate, an anti-nutritional factor that inhibits the absorption of minerals like iron and zinc, is reduced by washing and cooking but is still high enough to inhibit adequate mineral absorption.<ref name=":3" />
Generally, parboiled fonio shows the best nutritional composition when compared to the other processing methods.<ref name=":4" /> However, parboiling fonio does not lead to as efficient redistribution of nutrients as is the case with parboiled rice. Additionally, the process of parboiling changes the color of the fonio grains which is disliked by some consumers.<ref name=":3" />
Commercialization outside of AfricaEdit
Fonio has been relatively unknown outside the African continent until recently, when companies in Europe and the United States began to import the grain from West Africa, often citing its ecological and nutritional benefits in their marketing.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
United StatesEdit
In the United States, Yolélé Foods, led by Senegalese-American chef Pierre Thiam, started importing and selling fonio in 2017. Thiam hopes to introduce Americans to the grain while simultaneously supporting sustainable and traditional agriculture in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali and Senegal. What is considered to be a peasant's food in West Africa is now sold in luxury grocery stores in the United States.<ref name=":2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
However, Thiam positions his project as part of a larger movement to elevate the economic power of African farmers, who for centuries have been suppressed by Western hegemony in the global food system.<ref name=":2" />
European UnionEdit
In December 2018, the European Commission approved commercialization of fonio as a novel food in the European Union, after submission by the Italian company Obà Food to manufacture and market new food products. These products include fonio pasta, revealing a desire to change fonio to be more recognizable to the European palate.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Since this initial approval, fonio has gradually become more popular and more accessible in Europe. By 2021, the EU was importing 422 metric tonnes (465.2 tons) of fonio, a significant increase from the 172 metric tonnes (189.6 tons) imported in 2016.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
See alsoEdit
ReferencesEdit
Further readingEdit
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