Geoffroy's tamarin
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Geoffroy's tamarin (Saguinus geoffroyi), also known as the Panamanian, red-crested or rufous-naped tamarin, is a tamarin, a type of small monkey, found in Panama and Colombia. It is predominantly black and white, with a reddish nape. Diurnal, Geoffroy's tamarin spends most of its time in trees, but does come down to the ground occasionally. It lives in groups that most often number between three and five individuals, and generally include one or more adults of each sex. It eats a variety of foods, including insects, plant exudates, fruits and other plant parts. Insects and fruits account for the majority of its diet, but exudates are also important. But since its teeth are not adapted for gouging trees to get to the sap, it can only eat exudates when they are easily available.
Although a variety of reproductive methods are used, the most common is for a single adult female in the group to be reproductively active and to mate with multiple adult males in the group. After a gestation period of about 145 days, she gives birth to either a single infant or twins. Males contribute significantly to care of the infants. Sexual maturity is reached at about 2 years, and it can live up to 13 years. Geoffroy's tamarin is classified as being "near threatened" by the IUCN.
TaxonomyEdit
Like the other tamarins and marmosets, Geoffroy's tamarin is a New World monkey classified within the family Callitrichidae.<ref name=SAP/> In 2001, Colin Groves included the Callitrichids in the family Cebidae, which also includes capuchin monkeys and squirrel monkeys, but in 2009 Anthony Rylands and Russell Mittermeier reverted to older classifications which considered Callitrichidae a separate family.<ref name=msw3/><ref name=SAP/> It is a member the genus Saguinus, the genus containing most tamarins.<ref name=msw3/><ref name=SAP/> There are no recognized subspecies.<ref name=msw3/> In 1977, Philip Hershkovitz classified Geoffroy's tamarin as a subspecies of the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus), which resides exclusively in Colombia, based on fur coloration, cranial and mandibular morphology, and ear size.<ref name="Estrada2006">Template:Cite book</ref> However, more recent research indicates that the two taxa differ sufficiently to be considered separate species.<ref name=perspectives/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> According to genetic analyses, the two species diverged approximately 1.2 million years ago.<ref name="Buckner2015">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Physical descriptionEdit
In common with other callitrichids (tamarins and marmosets), Geoffroy's tamarin is a small monkey.<ref name=reid>Template:Cite book</ref> With a length of between Template:Convert, excluding the tail,<ref name=colombia/> it is the smallest Central American monkey.<ref name=reid/> The tail length is between Template:Convert.<ref name=colombia/> Males have an average weight of Template:Convert, and females are slightly larger on average, with an average weight of Template:Convert.<ref name=colombia/> The fur on its back is variegated black and yellow, with pale legs, feet and chest.<ref name=pic/><ref name=field/> Its face is nearly bare, but the head has reddish fur with a triangle-shaped patch in the front of the head.<ref name=pic/> The tail is chestnut-red and has a black tip.<ref name=pic>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=field>Template:Cite book</ref>
BehaviorEdit
Like all callitrichids, Geoffroy's tamarin is diurnal and arboreal.<ref name=field/> Unlike some other New World monkeys, it does come down to the ground occasionally.<ref name=ethology>Template:Cite book</ref> This is normally done only in special circumstances, such as to acquire certain foods or to get to a tree it cannot otherwise reach.<ref name=smith/> Group size is generally between three and nine monkeys, with three to five being most common.<ref name=colombia>Template:Cite book</ref> Groups often consist of more than one adult of each sex.<ref name=social>Template:Cite journal</ref> Adults of both sexes migrate between groups.<ref name=social/> Groups show some degree of territorial defense.<ref name=reid/> Population densities on Barro Colorado Island in Panama range between 3.6 and 5.7 monkeys per square kilometer, but in other areas the population density can be as much as 20 to 30 monkeys per square kilometer.<ref name=colombia/> On average, Geoffroy's tamarin ranges 2061 meters per day.<ref name=colombia/> Home range size varies between 9.4 hectares and 32 hectares.<ref name=iucn/>
Communication occurs both through vocalization and by visual gestures.<ref name=smith/> Vocalizations that have been recorded include whistles, twitters, trills, loud or soft sharp notes, sneezes and long rasps.<ref name=colombia/> Body postures and displays that reveal more of the white coloration, such as standing on hind legs and piloerection, tend to be associated with aggression.<ref name=smith/> Females often signal willingness to mate by rapidly coiling their tails.<ref name=smith/>
Unlike squirrels, which often move through the canopy by climbing and descending vertical tree trunks, Geoffroy's tamarin generally avoids large vertical supports during travel. It prefers to move across thin branches, ascending and descending by long leaps. To the extent Geoffroy's tamarin uses large vertical supports for travel, it uses them most often for ascending rather than descending.<ref name=locomotor>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Geoffroy's tamarin generally avoids sympatric small and medium size monkey species such as the white-headed capuchin and the Panamanian night monkey. Avoidance is spatial with respect to the capuchin, and temporal in the case of the night monkey, since Geoffroy's tamarin is only active during daylight hours and the Panamanian night monkey is only active at night. Geoffroy's tamarin is rarely observed in the vicinity of squirrels, although this appears to be the result of the squirrels avoiding interactions with the larger tamarins. Geoffroy's tamarin generally attempts to escape when birds of prey approach, regardless of whether the bird presents a true danger. However, the tamarins ignore one bird of prey, the double-toothed kite, which sometimes follows the tamarins in an apparent effort to feed on small animals disturbed by the tamarins.<ref name=smith/>
The diet of Geoffroy's tamarin is similar to some species of tyrant flycatcher birds in Panama, and they share similar vocalizations. The tamarins may use the flycatcher calls to help find favorable food sources. The flycatchers and tamarins have different patterns of activity, which minimizes competition for similar food sources. The flycatchers are most active shortly after dawn and tend to rest in the middle of the day. The tamarins do not become active until about 45 minutes after full daylight, but remain active for most of the remaining daylight hours until an hour or less before sunset.<ref name=smith/>
DietEdit
Geoffroy's tamarin has a varied diet that includes fruits, insects, exudates (gums and saps), and green plant parts.<ref name=colombia/> The diet varies seasonally.<ref name=colombia/> A study by Paul Garber estimated that the diet was made up of 40% insects, 38% fruit, 14% exudates (almost entirely from Anacardium excelsum cashew trees), and 8% other items.<ref name=colombia/><ref name=locomotor/> Another study, on Barro Colorado Island, showed 60% fruit, 30% insects and 10% green plant parts, including large amounts of elephant ear tree (Enterolobium cyclocarpum) sap.<ref name=colombia/> Another study showed a diet about equally split between insects (mostly grasshoppers) and fruit.<ref name=colombia/> Unlike marmosets, tamarins do not have dentition adapted for gouging trees, so Geoffroy's tamarin eats sap only when it is easily accessible.<ref name="iucn" /><ref name=locomotor/> It generally hunts for insects by making quick movements on thin, flexible supports.<ref name=locomotor/> In contrast, it generally feeds on sap while clinging to large vertical tree trunks.<ref name=locomotor/>
In one study, Geoffroy's tamarin drank water from the corollas of Ochroma limonesis flowers.<ref name=colombia/> However, it is believed to also drink from tree holes, similar to other tamarin species.<ref name=colombia/>
ReproductionEdit
Geoffroy's tamarin can give birth throughout the year, but the birthing peak is from April to June.<ref name="iucn" /><ref name=colombia/> A single infant or twins can be born, although it is not uncommon for one of the twins to perish within the first few months.<ref name=perspectives2>Template:Cite book</ref> The gestation period is believed to be about 145 days, similar to the cottontop tamarin.<ref name="iucn" /><ref name=colombia/> The interbirth period ranges between 154 and 540 days, with an average of 311 days.<ref name=colombia/> The longer interbirth periods occur after twins.<ref name=colombia/> Infants weigh between Template:Convert and are born fully furred.<ref name=colombia/> The infant's fur is colored differently than the parents'; the infant has black fur on the body and tail, with a beige blaze and white face.<ref name=colombia/> The infant coloration reduces the visibility of white, which is associated with aggressive displays by the species.<ref name=smith/>
Both polyandrous and polygynous mating occurs, and males contribute heavily to parental care.<ref name=perspectives2/> But typically, only one adult female in a group is reproductively active, and reproductively active females mate with multiple males if given the opportunity.<ref name=social/> Males carry and groom infants more than females do.<ref name=colombia/> Older siblings may also contribute to infant care, although infants prefer to be carried by their parents than their siblings.<ref name=colombia/> Infants become mobile at 2 to 5 weeks, and begin eating solid food at 4 to 7 weeks.<ref name=colombia/> They are independent at 10 to 18 weeks and are fully weaned at 15 to 25 weeks.<ref name=colombia/> Geoffroy's tamarin becomes sexually mature at about 2 years, and can live up to 13 years.<ref name=pic/>
Distribution and habitatEdit
Geoffroy's tamarin lives in various types of forest, including primary and secondary forest, and dry and moist tropical forest.<ref name=pic/> In Panama, it prefers secondary forests with moderate humidity.<ref name=smith>Template:Cite journal</ref> It occurs in central and eastern Panama, with the range extending slightly west of the Panama Canal zone and has been observed as far west as Altos de Campana National Park.<ref name=perspectives/> It is less common on the Atlantic coast of Panama than the Pacific coast, and is only abundant on the Atlantic coast in areas near the Canal zone that have been modified by man.<ref name=perspectives/><ref name=smith/> It occurs in Metropolitan Natural Park, an urban park within Panama City.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In Colombia, it occurs on the Pacific coast west of the Andes, south to the Rio San Juan.<ref name=perspectives/> The eastern boundary of its range in Colombia was once thought to be the Rio Atrato, but has been reported further east, including the Las Orquídeas National Natural Park.<ref name=perspectives/> Older sources sometimes report the species occurring in southern Costa Rica, but these are most likely erroneous.<ref name=perspectives>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=costa>Template:Cite book</ref>
Conservation statusEdit
The International Union for Conservation of Nature classifies Geoffroy's tamarin as being near threatened.<ref name=iucn/> The main threat is deforestation, which is causing population declines in some areas despite its ability to adapt to some modifications of its habitat.<ref name=iucn/> It is also sometimes hunted and captured for the pet trade in Panama.<ref name=iucn/> A 1985 study in Panama concluded that Geoffroy tamarin population densities are higher in areas where human access is limited.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Human activity in Panama can have both positive and negative effects on Geoffroy's-tamarin populations. While hunting decreases the population, cutting mature forest for agriculture provides more areas of secondary growth, which is beneficial for the tamarin.<ref name=smith/>
ReferencesEdit
External linksEdit
Template:Callitrichidae nav Template:Panamanian monkey species Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control