Goldbach's conjecture

Goldbach's conjecture is one of the oldest and best-known unsolved problems in number theory and all of mathematics. It states that every even natural number greater than 2 is the sum of two prime numbers.

The conjecture has been shown to hold for all integers less than Template:Val but remains unproven despite considerable effort.

History

Origins

On 7 June 1742, the Prussian mathematician Christian Goldbach wrote a letter to Leonhard Euler (letter XLIII),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> in which he proposed the following conjecture: Template:Block indent Goldbach was following the now-abandoned convention of considering 1 to be a prime number,<ref name=MathWorldConj>{{#invoke:Template wrapper|{{#if:|list|wrap}}|_template=cite web |_exclude=urlname, _debug, id |url = https://mathworld.wolfram.com/{{#if:GoldbachConjecture%7CGoldbachConjecture.html}} |title = Goldbach Conjecture |author = Weisstein, Eric W. |website = MathWorld |access-date = |ref = Template:SfnRef }}</ref> so that a sum of units would be a sum of primes. He then proposed a second conjecture in the margin of his letter, which implies the first:<ref>In the printed version published by P. H. Fuss [1] 2 is misprinted as 1 in the marginal conjecture.</ref>

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It seems at least, that every integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of three primes.{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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Euler replied in a letter dated 30 June 1742<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and reminded Goldbach of an earlier conversation they had had ("{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}"), in which Goldbach had remarked that the first of those two conjectures would follow from the statement Template:Block indent This is in fact equivalent to his second, marginal conjecture. In the letter dated 30 June 1742, Euler stated:<ref name="theorema">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="PrimeGlossary">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

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That ... every even integer is a sum of two primes, I regard as a completely certain theorem, although I cannot prove it.{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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Similar conjecture by Descartes

René Descartes wrote that "Every even number can be expressed as the sum of at most three primes."<ref>On a conjecture of Descartes János Pintz, ELKH R´enyi Mathematical Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 11 January 2025. </ref> The proposition is similar to, but weaker than, Goldbach's conjecture. Paul Erdős said that "Descartes actually discovered this before Goldbach... but it is better that the conjecture was named for Goldbach because, mathematically speaking, Descartes was infinitely rich and Goldbach was very poor."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Partial results

The strong Goldbach conjecture is much more difficult than the weak Goldbach conjecture, which says that every odd integer greater than 5 is the sum of three primes. Using Vinogradov's method, Nikolai Chudakov,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Johannes van der Corput,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and Theodor Estermann<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> showed (1937–1938) that almost all even numbers can be written as the sum of two primes (in the sense that the fraction of even numbers up to some Template:Mvar which can be so written tends towards 1 as Template:Mvar increases). In 1930, Lev Schnirelmann proved that any natural number greater than 1 can be written as the sum of not more than Template:Mvar prime numbers, where Template:Mvar is an effectively computable constant; see Schnirelmann density.<ref>Schnirelmann, L. G. (1930). "On the additive properties of numbers", first published in "Proceedings of the Don Polytechnic Institute in Novocherkassk" (in Russian), vol 14 (1930), pp. 3–27, and reprinted in "Uspekhi Matematicheskikh Nauk" (in Russian), 1939, no. 6, 9–25.</ref><ref>Schnirelmann, L. G. (1933). First published as "Über additive Eigenschaften von Zahlen" in "Mathematische Annalen" (in German), vol. 107 (1933), 649–690, and reprinted as "On the additive properties of numbers" in "Uspekhi Matematicheskikh Nauk" (in Russian), 1940, no. 7, 7–46.</ref> Schnirelmann's constant is the lowest number Template:Mvar with this property. Schnirelmann himself obtained Template:Math. This result was subsequently enhanced by many authors, such as Olivier Ramaré, who in 1995 showed that every even number Template:Math is in fact the sum of at most 6 primes. The best known result currently stems from the proof of the weak Goldbach conjecture by Harald Helfgott,<ref>Template:Cite arXiv</ref> which directly implies that every even number Template:Math is the sum of at most 4 primes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1924, Hardy and Littlewood showed under the assumption of the generalized Riemann hypothesis that the number of even numbers up to Template:Mvar violating the Goldbach conjecture is much less than Template:Math for small Template:Mvar.<ref>See, for example, A new explicit formula in the additive theory of primes with applications I. The explicit formula for the Goldbach and Generalized Twin Prime Problems by Janos Pintz.</ref>

In 1948, using sieve theory methods, Alfréd Rényi showed that every sufficiently large even number can be written as the sum of a prime and an almost prime with at most Template:Mvar factors.<ref name="Alfréd Rényi 1948">Template:Cite journal</ref> Chen Jingrun showed in 1973 using sieve theory that every sufficiently large even number can be written as the sum of either two primes, or a prime and a semiprime (the product of two primes).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> See Chen's theorem for further information.

In 1975, Hugh Lowell Montgomery and Bob Vaughan showed that "most" even numbers are expressible as the sum of two primes. More precisely, they showed that there exist positive constants Template:Mvar and Template:Mvar such that for all sufficiently large numbers Template:Mvar, every even number less than Template:Mvar is the sum of two primes, with at most Template:Math exceptions. In particular, the set of even integers that are not the sum of two primes has density zero.

In 1951, Yuri Linnik proved the existence of a constant Template:Mvar such that every sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes and at most Template:Mvar powers of 2. János Pintz and Imre Ruzsa found in 2020 that Template:Math works.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Assuming the generalized Riemann hypothesis, Template:Math also works, as shown by Roger Heath-Brown and Jan-Christoph Schlage-Puchta in 2002.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

A proof for the weak conjecture was submitted in 2013 by Harald Helfgott to Annals of Mathematics Studies series. Although the article was accepted, Helfgott decided to undertake the major modifications suggested by the referee. Despite several revisions, Helfgott's proof has not yet appeared in a peer-reviewed publication.<ref name="Helfgott 2013">Template:Cite arXiv</ref><ref name="Helfgott 2012">Template:Cite arXiv</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The weak conjecture is implied by the strong conjecture, as if Template:Math is a sum of two primes, then Template:Mvar is a sum of three primes. However, the converse implication and thus the strong Goldbach conjecture would remain unproven if Helfgott's proof is correct.

Computational results

For small values of Template:Mvar, the strong Goldbach conjecture (and hence the weak Goldbach conjecture) can be verified directly. For instance, in 1938, Nils Pipping laboriously verified the conjecture up to Template:Math.<ref>Pipping, Nils (1890–1982), "Die Goldbachsche Vermutung und der Goldbach-Vinogradowsche Satz". Acta Acad. Aboensis, Math. Phys. 11, 4–25, 1938.</ref> With the advent of computers, many more values of Template:Mvar have been checked; T. Oliveira e Silva ran a distributed computer search that has verified the conjecture for Template:Math (and double-checked up to Template:Val) as of 2013. One record from this search is that Template:Val is the smallest number that cannot be written as a sum of two primes where one is smaller than 9781.<ref>Tomás Oliveira e Silva, Goldbach conjecture verification. Retrieved 20 April 2024.</ref>

In popular culture

Goldbach's Conjecture (Template:Zh) is the title of the biography of Chinese mathematician and number theorist Chen Jingrun, written by Xu Chi.

The conjecture is a central point in the plot of the 1992 novel Uncle Petros and Goldbach's Conjecture by Greek author Apostolos Doxiadis, in the short story "Sixty Million Trillion Combinations" by Isaac Asimov and also in the 2008 mystery novel No One You Know by Michelle Richmond.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Goldbach's conjecture is part of the plot of the 2007 Spanish film Fermat's Room.

Goldbach's conjecture is featured as the main topic of research of the titular character Marguerite in the 2023 French-Swiss film Marguerite's Theorem.<ref> Odile Morain Le Théorème de Marguerite, in franceinfo:culture</ref>

Formal statement

Each of the three conjectures has a natural analog in terms of the modern definition of a prime, under which 1 is excluded. A modern version of the first conjecture is: Template:Block indent A modern version of the marginal conjecture is:

And a modern version of Goldbach's older conjecture of which Euler reminded him is:

These modern versions might not be entirely equivalent to the corresponding original statements. For example, if there were an even integer Template:Math larger than 4, for Template:Mvar a prime, that could not be expressed as the sum of two primes in the modern sense, then it would be a counterexample to the modern version of the third conjecture (without being a counterexample to the original version). The modern version is thus probably stronger (but in order to confirm that, one would have to prove that the first version, freely applied to any positive even integer Template:Mvar, could not possibly rule out the existence of such a specific counterexample Template:Mvar). In any case, the modern statements have the same relationships with each other as the older statements did. That is, the second and third modern statements are equivalent, and either implies the first modern statement.

The third modern statement (equivalent to the second) is the form in which the conjecture is usually expressed today. It is also known as the "strong", "even", or "binary" Goldbach conjecture. A weaker form of the second modern statement, known as "Goldbach's weak conjecture", the "odd Goldbach conjecture", or the "ternary Goldbach conjecture", asserts that

Heuristic justification

File:Goldbach partitions of the even integers from 4 to 28 300px.png

Sums of two primes at the intersections of three lines

Statistical considerations that focus on the probabilistic distribution of prime numbers present informal evidence in favour of the conjecture (in both the weak and strong forms) for sufficiently large integers: the greater the integer, the more ways there are available for that number to be represented as the sum of two or three other numbers, and the more "likely" it becomes that at least one of these representations consists entirely of primes.

File:Goldbach-1000000.png

Number of ways to write an even number Template:Mvar as the sum of two primes (sequence A002375 in the OEIS)

A very crude version of the heuristic probabilistic argument (for the strong form of the Goldbach conjecture) is as follows. The prime number theorem asserts that an integer Template:Mvar selected at random has roughly a Template:Math chance of being prime. Thus if Template:Mvar is a large even integer and Template:Mvar is a number between 3 and Template:Math, then one might expect the probability of Template:Mvar and Template:Math simultaneously being prime to be Template:Math. If one pursues this heuristic, one might expect the total number of ways to write a large even integer Template:Mvar as the sum of two odd primes to be roughly

<math>\sum_{m=3}^\frac{n}{2} \frac{1}{\ln m} \frac{1}{\ln(n - m)} \approx \frac{n}{2 (\ln n)^2}.</math>

Since Template:Math, this quantity goes to infinity as Template:Mvar increases, and one would expect that every large even integer has not just one representation as the sum of two primes, but in fact very many such representations.

This heuristic argument is actually somewhat inaccurate because it assumes that the events of Template:Mvar and Template:Math being prime are statistically independent of each other. For instance, if Template:Mvar is odd, then Template:Math is also odd, and if Template:Mvar is even, then Template:Math is even, a non-trivial relation because, besides the number 2, only odd numbers can be prime. Similarly, if Template:Mvar is divisible by 3, and Template:Mvar was already a prime other than 3, then Template:Math would also be coprime to 3 and thus be slightly more likely to be prime than a general number. Pursuing this type of analysis more carefully, G. H. Hardy and John Edensor Littlewood in 1923 conjectured (as part of their Hardy–Littlewood prime tuple conjecture) that for any fixed Template:Math, the number of representations of a large integer Template:Mvar as the sum of Template:Mvar primes Template:Math with Template:Math should be asymptotically equal to

<math>\left(\prod_p \frac{p \gamma_{c,p}(n)}{(p - 1)^c}\right)

\int_{2 \leq x_1 \leq \cdots \leq x_c: x_1 + \cdots + x_c = n} \frac{dx_1 \cdots dx_{c-1}}{\ln x_1 \cdots \ln x_c},</math>

where the product is over all primes Template:Mvar, and Template:Math is the number of solutions to the equation Template:Math in modular arithmetic, subject to the constraints Template:Math. This formula has been rigorously proven to be asymptotically valid for Template:Math from the work of Ivan Matveevich Vinogradov, but is still only a conjecture when Template:Math.Template:Citation needed In the latter case, the above formula simplifies to 0 when Template:Mvar is odd, and to

<math>

2 \Pi_2 \left(\prod_{p \mid n; p \geq 3} \frac{p - 1}{p - 2}\right) \int_2^n \frac{dx}{(\ln x)^2}
\approx 2 \Pi_2 \left(\prod_{p \mid n; p \geq 3} \frac{p - 1}{p - 2}\right) \frac{n}{(\ln n)^2}

</math>

when Template:Mvar is even, where Template:Math is Hardy–Littlewood's twin prime constant

<math>\Pi_2 := \prod_{p\;{\rm prime} \ge 3} \left(1 - \frac{1}{(p-1)^2}\right) \approx 0.66016\,18158\,46869\,57392\,78121\,10014\dots</math>

This is sometimes known as the extended Goldbach conjecture. The strong Goldbach conjecture is in fact very similar to the twin prime conjecture, and the two conjectures are believed to be of roughly comparable difficulty.

File:Goldbachs comet.gif

Goldbach's comet; red, blue and green points correspond respectively the values 0, 1 and 2 modulo 3 of the number.

The Goldbach partition function is the function that associates to each even integer the number of ways it can be decomposed into a sum of two primes. Its graph looks like a comet and is therefore called Goldbach's comet.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Goldbach's comet suggests tight upper and lower bounds on the number of representations of an even number as the sum of two primes, and also that the number of these representations depend strongly on the value modulo 3 of the number.

Related problems

Although Goldbach's conjecture implies that every positive integer greater than one can be written as a sum of at most three primes, it is not always possible to find such a sum using a greedy algorithm that uses the largest possible prime at each step. The Pillai sequence tracks the numbers requiring the largest number of primes in their greedy representations.<ref>Template:Cite OEIS</ref>

Similar problems to Goldbach's conjecture exist in which primes are replaced by other particular sets of numbers, such as the squares:

• It was proven by Lagrange that every positive integer is the sum of four squares. See Waring's problem and the related Waring–Goldbach problem on sums of powers of primes.
• Hardy and Littlewood listed as their Conjecture I: "Every large odd number (Template:Math) is the sum of a prime and the double of a prime".<ref>Mathematics Magazine, 66:1 (1993): 45–47.</ref> This conjecture is known as Lemoine's conjecture and is also called Levy's conjecture.
• The Goldbach conjecture for practical numbers, a prime-like sequence of integers, was stated by Margenstern in 1984,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and proved by Melfi in 1996:<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> every even number is a sum of two practical numbers.
• Harvey Dubner proposed a strengthening of the Goldbach conjecture that states that every even integer greater than 4208 is the sum of two twin primes (not necessarily belonging to the same pair).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Better source Only 34 even integers less than 4208 are not the sum of two twin primes; Dubner has verified computationally that this list is complete up to <math>2\cdot 10^{10}.</math><ref>Template:Cite OEIS</ref>Template:Check A proof of this stronger conjecture would not only imply Goldbach's conjecture, but also the twin prime conjecture.

• According to Bertrand's postulate, for every integer <math>n > 1</math>, there is always at least one prime <math>p</math> such that <math>n < p < 2n.</math> If the postulate were false, there would exist some integer <math>n</math> for which no prime numbers lie between <math>n</math> and <math>2n</math>, making it impossible to express <math>2n</math> as a sum of two primes.

Goldbach's conjecture is used when studying computational complexity.<ref name="quanta">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The connection is made through the Busy Beaver function, where BB(n) is the maximum number of steps taken by any n state Turing machine that halts. There is a 27-state Turing machine that halts if and only if Goldbach's conjecture is false.<ref name="quanta"/> Hence if BB(27) was known, and the Turing machine did not stop in that number of steps, it would be known to run forever and hence no counterexamples exist (which proves the conjecture true). This is a completely impractical way to settle the conjecture; instead it is used to suggest that BB(27) will be very hard to compute, at least as difficult as settling the Goldbach conjecture.

Further reading

• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Cite journal
• Terence Tao proved that all odd numbers are at most the sum of five primes.
• Goldbach Conjecture at MathWorld.

External links

• Template:Commons category-inline
• Template:Springer
• Goldbach's original letter to Euler — PDF format (in German and Latin)
• Goldbach's conjecture, part of Chris Caldwell's Prime Pages.
• Goldbach conjecture verification, Tomás Oliveira e Silva's distributed computer search.