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Hammadid dynasty

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Template:Short description {{#invoke:Infobox|infoboxTemplate |templatestyles = Template:Infobox country/styles.css | bodyclass = ib-country vcard | aboveclass = adr | above = {{#if:Hammadid dynastyTemplate:Native name
Al-Hāmmādiyūn 

    | {{#if:Hammadid dynasty

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Hammadid dynasty
       }}{{#if:Template:Native name 
 Al-Hāmmādiyūn

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              }}{{#ifeq:|yes
              |Micronation
       }}

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| subheader = {{#if: | {{{life_span}}} | {{#if:1014|1014{{#if:1152|–1152 }} }} }}

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 |Template:Infobox country/imagetable }}

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|Motto: Template:If empty{{#if:|

{{{englishmotto}}}

}} 

   }}

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       |Anthem: Template:If empty
       }}{{#if:
       |Anthems: {{{anthems}}}
       }}{{#if:
       |
Royal anthem: {{{royal_anthem}}}
       }}{{#if:
       |
Flag anthem: {{{flag_anthem}}}
       }}{{#if:
       |
National march: {{{national_march}}}
       }}{{#if:
       |
Territorial anthem: {{{territorial_anthem}}}
       }}{{#if:
       |
Regional anthem: {{{regional_anthem}}}
       }}{{#if:
       |
State anthem: {{{state_anthem}}}
       }}{{#if:
       |
March: {{{march}}}
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              | Template:If empty
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| data4 = {{#if:Central Maghreb and Ifriqiya c. 1065.png

|{{#invoke:InfoboxImage|InfoboxImage|image=Central Maghreb and Ifriqiya c. 1065.png|size=|upright=1.15|alt=|title=Hammadid territories circa 1065, at their greatest extent during the reign of Al Nacir }}{{#if:Hammadid territories circa 1065, at their greatest extent during the reign of Al Nacir|

Hammadid territories circa 1065, at their greatest extent during the reign of Al Nacir

}} }}

| data5 = {{#if:

|{{#invoke:InfoboxImage|InfoboxImage|image=|size=|upright=1.15|alt=|title=Location of Hammadid }}{{#if:|

}} }}

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| label7 = Location | data7 =

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                        |capital|{{#switch:Template:Flatlist
                          | [[]] = capital
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}}}}|capital |

and largest city
             }}

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{{#invoke:Coordinates|coordinsert|{{{coordinates}}}|type:city}}}} }}

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 |capital | =
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          |{{#ifeq:|yes |mergedbottomrow}} }}

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|

Template:If empty
 |Template:If empty
 }}

| data17 = Maghrebi Arabic
Berber languages

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Template:If empty
 |Template:If empty
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({{{ethnic_groups_year}}})

|

}}

| data19 =

| label20 = Religion {{#if: |

({{{religion_year}}})

|

}}

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 |{{#ifexist:{{{demonym}}} people
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| label22 = Type | data22 =

| label23 = Template:If empty | data23 =

| label24 = {{#if:Hereditary
monarchy 

    | {{#if:
              | [[{{{politics_link}}}|{{#ifeq:|yes|Organizational structure|Government}}]]| {{#ifexist:Politics of Hammadid
                 | {{#ifeq:|yes|Organizational structure|Government}}| {{#ifeq:|yes|Organizational structure|Government}}}}}}}}

| data24 = Hereditary
monarchy

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monarchy || {{#if: 

       | {{#if:
          | Leaders          
          | Government 
         }} 
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• {{#if:|{{{type_house1}}}|Upper house}}

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• {{#if:|{{{type_house2}}}|Lower house}}

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  |{{#if:

| {{{sovereignty_type}}}{{#if: | 

{{{sovereignty_note}}}

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     | {{#if:| | Establishment }}
 }} }}

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     |
     |
     }}

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 | {{#if:
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                 | Area {{#ifeq:|yes|claimed|}}}}}} }}

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• Total

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| label62 =

• Land

| data62 = {{#if: 

 |{{#if:
    |Template:Convinfobox
    |{{#if:
       |Template:Convinfobox
     }}
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 }}

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| label63 =

• Water

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 |{{#if:
    |Template:Convinfobox
    |{{#if:
       |Template:Convinfobox
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| label64 =

• Water (%)

| data64 =

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• 

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• 

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• {{{FR_metropole}}}

| data72 = {{#if:| }}

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• IGN

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 |{{#if:
    |Template:Convinfobox{{#if:| ([[List of countries and dependencies by area|]])}}
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}}

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• Cadastre

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                 | Population| Population}}}} }}

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• 

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• 

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• {{#if: |{{{population_census_year}}} census|Census}}

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 |{{{population_census}}}{{#if: | ({{{population_census_rank}}})}}
 }}

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• Total

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|{{{FR_total_population_estimate}}}{{#if:| ({{{FR_total_population_estimate_rank}}})}}
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• {{{FR_metropole}}}

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| ({{{FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank}}})}}
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• Density

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    | Template:Convinfobox{{#if: | ({{{population_density_rank}}})}}
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    |{{#if: |{{{GDP_PPP_year}}} }}estimate
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| label102=

• Total

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| label103=

• Per capita

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  |{{#if: |{{{GDP_nominal_year}}} }}estimate
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• Total

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    |{{{GDP_nominal}}}{{#if: | ({{{GDP_nominal_rank}}})}}
    }}

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| label106=

• Per capita

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       | {{{GDP_nominal_per_capita}}}{{#if: | ({{{GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank}}})}}
      }}

| label107= Gini{{#if: | Template:Nobold}} | data107= {{#if: 

    | {{#switch:
             |increase = Template:IncreaseNegative |decrease = Template:DecreasePositive |steady = Template:Steady }}{{{Gini}}}
Template:Nowrap{{#if:
              | ({{{Gini_rank}}})}}}}

| label108= HDI{{#if: | Template:Nobold}} | data108= {{#if: 

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Template:Nowrap{{#if:
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| label109= {{#ifeq:|yes|Purported currency|Currency}} | data109= {{#if:Dinar (gold coin)<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp 

    | Dinar (gold coin)<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp {{#if: |({{{currency_code}}})}}
  }}

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    |Template:Nowrap {{#if:|({{{time_zone}}})}}
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| label120=

• Summer (DST)

| data120= {{#if: 

    |Template:Nowrap {{#if:|({{{time_zone_DST}}})|{{#if:|({{{DST}}})}}}}
    |{{#if:|{{{time_zone_DST}}}|}}
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| label122 = Antipodes | data122=

| label123 = Date format | data123=


| label126= {{#if: 

   |{{#ifexist:Telephone numbers in Hammadid
              | Calling code
              | Calling code
             }}
  }}

| data126=

| label127= ISO 3166 code | data127= {{#switch: 

    |omit = 
    | = {{#if:Hammadid
             | {{#if:Template:ISO 3166 code
                | [[ISO 3166-2:Template:ISO 3166 code|Template:ISO 3166 code]]
               }}
            }}
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   }}

| label128= Internet TLD | data128=

| data129 = {{#if:

|

Website
{{{official_website}}}
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| data130= {{#if:

| {{#invoke:InfoboxImage|InfoboxImage|image=|size=|upright=1.15|alt=|title=Location of Hammadid }}{{#if:|

}} 

 }}

| data134 = {{#if:Zirid dynastyAlmohad Caliphate 

             |Template:Infobox country/formernext

}}

| label135 = Today part of | data135 =

| data136 = {{#if:

|

    {{#if:|
  1. }}{{#if:|
  2. }}{{#if:|
  3. }}{{#if:|
  4. }}{{#if:|
  5. }}{{#if:|
  6. }}{{#if:|
  7. }}{{#if:|
  8. }}

}}

| data137 = {{#if:

|

    {{#if:|
  1. }}{{#if:|
  2. }}{{#if:|
  3. }}{{#if:|
  4. }}{{#if:|
  5. }}{{#if:|
  6. }}{{#if:|
  7. }}{{#if:|
  8. }}

}} | data138 = {{#if:|

{{{footnotes}}}{{#if:|
{{{footnotes2}}}}}

}}

| belowclass = mergedtoprow noprint | below = {{#if:| Template:Navbar }} }}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Infobox country with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| admin_center_type | admin_center | alt_coat | alt_flag | alt_flag2 | alt_map | alt_map2 | alt_map3 | alt_symbol | anthem | anthems | antipodes | area_acre | area_data2 | area_data3 | area_footnote | area_ha | area_km2 | area_label | area_label2 | area_label3 | area_land_acre | area_land_footnote | area_land_ha | area_land_km2 | area_land_sq_mi | area_link | area_rank | area_sq_mi | area_water_acre | area_water_footnote | area_water_ha | area_water_km2 | area_water_sq_mi | regexp1 = border_[ps][%d]+ | calling_code | capital_exile | capital_type | capital | cctld | coa_size | coat_alt | common_languages | common_name | conventional_long_name | coordinates | currency_code | currency | date_end | regexp2 = date_event[%d]+ | date_format | date_post | date_pre | date_start | demonym | regexp3 = deputy[%d]+ | drives_on | DST_note | DST | empire | englishmotto | era | regexp4 = established_date[%d]+ | regexp5 = established_event[%d]+ | established | ethnic_groups_ref | ethnic_groups_year | ethnic_groups | event_end | event_post | event_pre | event_start | regexp6 = event[%d]+ | flag| flag_alt | flag_alt2 | flag_border | flag_caption | flag_caption | regexp7 = flag_[ps][%d]+ | flag_size | flag_type | flag_type_article | flag_width | flag2_border | regexp8 = footnote_[a-h] | regexp9 = footnote[%d]+ | footnotes | footnotes2 | FR_cadastre_area_km2 | FR_cadastre_area_rank | FR_cadastre_area_sq_mi | FR_foot | FR_foot2 | FR_foot3 | FR_foot4 | FR_foot5 | FR_IGN_area_km2 | FR_IGN_area_rank | FR_IGN_area_sq_mi | FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank | FR_metropole_population | FR_metropole | FR_total_population_estimate_rank | FR_total_population_estimate_year | FR_total_population_estimate | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank | GDP_nominal_per_capita | GDP_nominal_rank | GDP_nominal_year | GDP_nominal | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank | GDP_PPP_per_capita | GDP_PPP_rank | GDP_PPP_year | GDP_PPP | Gini_change | Gini_rank | Gini_ref | Gini_year | Gini | government_type | HDI_change | HDI_rank | HDI_ref | HDI_year | HDI | house1 | house2 | image_coat | image_flag | image_flag2 | image_map_alt | image_map_caption | image_map_size | image_map | image_map2_alt | image_map2_caption | image_map2_size | image_map2 | image_map3 | regexp10 = image_[ps][%d]+ | image_symbol | iso3166code | languages_sub | languages_type | languages | languages2_sub | languages2_type | languages2 | largest_city | largest_settlement_type | largest_settlement | regexp11 = leader_name[%d]+ | regexp12 = leader_title[%d]+ | regexp13 = leader[%d]+ | legislature | life_span | linking_name | location_map | loctext | lower_house | map_caption | map_caption2 | map_caption3 | map_width | map2_width | map3_width | membership_type | membership | micronation | motto | name | national_anthem | national_languages | national_motto | native_name | navbar | nummembers | official_languages | official_website | org_type | other_symbol_type | other_symbol | regexp14 = [ps][%d]+ | patron_saint | patron_saints | percent_water | politics_link | pop_den_footnote | population_census_rank | population_census_year | population_census | population_data2 | population_data3 | population_density_km2 | population_density_rank | population_density_sq_mi | population_estimate_rank | population_estimate_year | population_estimate | population_label2 | population_label3 | population_link | recognised_languages | recognised_national_languages | recognised_regional_languages | recognized_languages | recognized_national_languages | regexp15 = ref_area[%d]+ | regexp16 = ref_pop[%d]+ | regional_languages | recognized_regional_languages | religion_ref | religion_year | religion | regexp17 = representative[%d]+ | royal_anthem | flag_anthem | march | national_march | regional_anthem | territorial_anthem | state_anthem | sovereignty_note | sovereignty_type | regexp18 = stat_area[%d]+ | regexp19 = stat_pop[%d]+ | regexp20 = stat_year[%d]+ | status_text | status | symbol| symbol_type_article | symbol_type | symbol_width | text_symbol_type | text_symbol | time_zone_DST | time_zone | title_deputy | title_leader | title_representative | today | type_house1 | type_house2 | upper_house | utc_offset_DST | utc_offset | regexp21 = year_deputy[%d]+ | year_end | year_exile_end | year_exile_start | regexp22 = year_leader[%d]+ | regexp23 = year_representative[%d]+ | year_start}}Template:Main other{{#if:|{{#ifeq:Nominal vassal of the Abbasid or Fatimid CaliphateTemplate:Efn|Colony|Template:Main other|{{#ifeq:Nominal vassal of the Abbasid or Fatimid CaliphateTemplate:Efn|Exile|Template:Main other}}}} }} Template:Sidebar with collapsible lists Template:Historical Berber states and dynasties The Hammadid dynasty (Template:Langx), also known as the Hammadid Emirate or the Kingdom of Bejaia,<ref name=":18"/>Template:Rp was a medieval Islamic kingdom<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp in the central Maghreb,<ref name=":34">Template:Cite book</ref> encompassing what is now Algeria. It was established at the beginning of the 11th century when Hammad ibn Buluggin declared himself emir,<ref name=":19"/> thus splitting the Zirid domains into two separate dynasties. Under the reign of Emir Al Nasir, the emirate briefly became the most important state in the Maghreb,<ref name=":A.S">Template:Cite book</ref> and reached its greatest territorial extent, stretching from Tlemcen in the west to Tunis in the east,<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":18"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":A.S"/> and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the desert oasis of Ouargla and Oued Righ in the south.<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":25"/> While they briefly controlled the principality of Fez in the west and cities like Sfax, Kairouan, Laribus, and Tripoli to the east.<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":052" /><ref name="Ilahiane 2006 55, 56" /><ref name=":A.S"/>

At first, Hammad built a fortified city that would serve as the capital for his newly declared kingdom.<ref name=":34"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Huebner" /> Later, upon the arrival of the Arabic Banu Hilal tribes, the capital would be replaced by another city, newly built by Emir Al Nasir ibn Alnas, called Al-Nāsiriyyah (from Template:Langx) and later renamed to Bejaia;<ref name=":30"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":A.S"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Féraud">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":50"/> it was the official capital of the Emirate by 1090 during the rule of Al-Mansur.<ref name=":A.S"/>Template:Rp Both cities grew to become among the largest and most prosperous centers of the Maghreb,<ref name=":50"/> with Bejaia housing more than 100,000 inhabitants.<ref name="Féraud"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":50">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Huebner" /> The Hammadids subsequently clashed with the Almoravids in the west and their cousins the Zirids in the east.<ref name=":Ilahiane"/><ref name=":25"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp The latter weakened with the rise of the prominent Normans in Sicily,<ref name=":A.S"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Huebner" /><ref name=":1987">Template:Cite book</ref> who also confronted the Hammadids for the domination of Ifriqiya (now Tunisia).<ref name=":30"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp However, the Hammadids faced another challenge on their western borders with the growing force of the Almohad Caliphate,<ref name=":A.S"/>Template:Rp and their emirate was finally annexed by the Almohads in 1152 after a brief clash with them.<ref name=":A.S"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Huebner" /><ref name=":25"/>Template:Rp

HistoryEdit

EstablishmentEdit

Template:Further In 987 and 989, al-Mansur ibn Buluggin, the emir of the Berber Zirid dynasty, appointed his uncle Hammad ibn Buluggin as governor of Ashir and western Zirid lands. Hammad subsequently defended the territory against Zenata incursions and was granted additional lands by al-Mansur's successor Badis ibn Mansur. In 1007 and 1008, forces under Hammad left Ashir and built a new citadel-capital, Qal'at Bani Hammad (also called Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad), in M'Sila Province in the Hodna Mountains; a thriving city sprang up around the fortress.<ref name="Huebner">Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1014, Hammad declared his independence from Zirid suzerainty and switched his spiritual allegiance from the Shi'a Fatimid caliphs to the Sunni Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. The Zirids failed to quash the rebellion and recognized Hammadid legitimacy in 1017, in a peace with al-Mu'izz that was sealed by Hammad's son and successor Qaid ibn Hammad (Template:Reign).<ref name=Huebner/> The peace was further sealed by marriage, with al-Mu'izz's sister marrying one of Hammad's sons.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":052" /> According to historian Hady Roger Idris, it appears that the Hammadids agreed to recognize Fatimid suzerainty again at this time, but at some later point in his reign, perhaps around the same time as the Zirids did in the 1040s, Qa'id ibn Hammad repudiated Fatimid suzerainty again.<ref name=":052" />

In 1039, Qaid ibn Hammad was attacked by Hammama, the ruler of Fes, but Hammama soon returned to Fez, requested peace, and declared his submission to the Hammadids.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Al-Mu'izz subsequently also broke with the Fatimids and changed his allegiance to the Abbasids. The Fatimid caliph, al-Mustansir, sent Bedouin Arab allies, the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, into a mass migration and invasion of the lands in what is now Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria, culminating in al-Mu'izz's defeat in 1053 and the subsequent reduction of the Zirids to a small, insignificant territory based in Mahdia.<ref name="Huebner" /> Amidst the chaos, the Hammadids reverted their allegiance to the Fatimids and managed to negotiate an alliance with the Bedouin tribes.<ref name="Huebner" /><ref name=":052" />

Although the Hammadids and Zirids entered into an agreement in 1077 in which Zirid ruler Tamim's daughter married into the Hammadids, this did not end the rivalry between the dynasties.<ref name=Baadj45>Amar S. Baadj, Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries) (Brill: 2013), p. 45.</ref> A common pattern was for Hammadids and Zirids to support "rival coalitions of Arab tribes to fight their proxy wars."<ref name=Baadj34>Amar S. Baadj, Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries) (Brill: 2013), p. 34, footnote 20.</ref> The Hammidid–Zirid rivalry also influenced the choice of which caliph to recognize; historian Amar S. Baadj writes, "It would appear that the principle which the Hammadids followed in the course of their relations with Baghdad and Cairo was that of opposing the Zirids. Whenever the Zirids recognized one of two rival caliphs, the Hammadids would declare their submission to the other."<ref name=Baad46>Amar S. Baadj, Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries) (Brill: 2013), p. 46.</ref>

ApogeeEdit

Buluggin ibn Muhammad (r. 1055–1062), a subsequent Hammadid ruler, invaded northern Morocco in 1062 and briefly took Fez for a few months, but was then assassinated by his paternal cousin An-Nasir ibn Alnas, who succeeded him as emir.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":052">Template:Cite book</ref> The Hammadid dynasty peaked during al-Nasir's reign.<ref name="Baadj">Amar S. Baadj, Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries) (Brill: 2013), pp. 42-47.</ref><ref name=Huebner/> Under his reign the Hammadids established their control across large parts of the Maghreb. Al-Nasir captured Constantine and Algiers, then established Hammadid influence far to the east in Sfax, where the local ruler acknowledged Hammadid suzerainty, as well as in Susa and Tripoli.<ref name=":052" /><ref name="Ilahiane 2006 55, 56" /><ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> At the request of local shaykhs, he was also able to install a loyal governor in Tunis until 1067.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":052" /> Between 1067 and 1072 he built Béjaïa, developing it from a small fishing village into a large, fortified town and port.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Huebner" /> The Hammadids also expanded south deep into the Sahara, with Ouargla forming the southernmost city of their territory.<ref name="Ilahiane 2006 55, 56">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> They briefly extended their authority further to the Oued Mya.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Sedrata: histoire et archéologie d'un carrefour du Sahara médiéval à la lumière des archives inédites de Marguerite van Berchem. Casa de Velázquez, 2017.</ref>

In the 11th century, the Hammadids came under increasing pressure from the Banu Hilal, who had settled in the Plains of Constantine and increasingly threatened Qal'at Bani Hammad.<ref name=Huebner/> While initially allied to the Bedouins, the Hammadids later became their puppets, allocating half of their harvest yields to them and buying off tribesmen in order to secure the safety of trade routes. Qal'at Bani Hammad was eventually eclipsed by Béjaïa.<ref name=Huebner/> In 1090, with the Banu Hilal menace rising, the Hammadids moved their capital to Béjaïa, yielding their southern territories to the Hilalians. The Hammadids maintained control of a small but prosperous coastal territory between Ténès and El Kala.<ref name=Huebner/> E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam (1927) states that the Qal'at Bani Hammad "was not completely abandoned by al-Mansur and he even embellished it with a number of palaces. The Hammadid kingdom had therefore at this point two capitals joined by a royal road."<ref>Georges Marcais, "Al-Mansur, the sixth ruler of the Hammadid dynasty" in E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Vol. 5 (ed. M. Th. Houtsma et al.) (Brill 1927: reprint ed. 1993), p. 250.</ref> Renamed al-Nasiriya to honor the emir, Béjaïa developed into a sophisticated trading city; under al-Nasir and his son and successor al-Mansur ibn Nasir, large gardens, palaces, a Great Mosque, and other landmarks were constructed in the town.<ref name="Huebner" />

An-Nasir corresponded with Pope Gregory VII and expanded commercial opportunities for Italian traders in Béjaïa. The city then flourished as a trading port and a prominent intellectual centre where even Abu Madyan and the Andalusian Shaykh Abu Ali Hassan bin Ali Muhammad taught.<ref name=":1" /> Leonardo Fibonacci had also studied in Béjaïa; his father was appointed as collector of customs in Béjaïa and brought Leonardo with him.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In Béjaïa Fibonacci was introduced to the Arabic numerical system and computational method; he later introduced this numerical system to Europe.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He was also introduced to a book of algebra written by al-Khwarizmi.

DeclineEdit

In 1103–1104 the Hammadids defeated the Almoravids and took control of Tlemcen.<ref name=":Ilahiane">Template:Cite book</ref> During the reign of al-Mansur's son Abd al-Aziz ibn Mansur (r. 1105–1121), Béjaïa had about 100,000 people, and the Hammadids consolidated their power in the city. The dynasty suffered a decline after this point; efforts to develop more sea power in the Mediterranean were foiled by the Normans, who by the 12th century had conquered Sicily and had also occupied a number of settlements on the coast of Tunisia and Algeria. However, Abd al-Aziz did expel the Hilalians from Hodna and capture Jerba.<ref name=Huebner/>

The last dynastic emir was Yahya ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 1121–1152). Yahya repulsed Bedouin incursions and subdued uprisings by Berber clans, but during his reign the Genoese also raided Béjaïa (1136), and the Kingdom of Sicily occupied the settlement of Djidjelli and destroyed a pleasure palace that had been built there.<ref name=Huebner/> Tunis, whose Khurasanid rulers had previously vacillated between recognizing Zirid and Hammadid authority, was annexed in 1128 and controlled by Hammadid governors until 1148.<ref name=":05223">Template:Cite book</ref>

Yahya tried to establish good relations with the Fatimids in the early 1140s, but ultimately he recognized the Abbasids instead and minted coins in al-Muqtafi's name.<ref name=":052" /> In 1144 and 1145, he dispatched Hammadid forces to join the Almoravids in fighting, unsuccessfully, the Berber Almohads led by Abd al-Mu'min.<ref name="Huebner" />

In 1145, Abd al-Mu'min conquered Tlemcen and Oran. In 1151, he marched against the Hammadids. The Almohads took Algiers in 1152 and captured Béjaïa later the same year, crushing Hammadid forces at the gates of the city.<ref name="Huebner" /> This marked a major military triumph for Abd al-Mu'min.<ref name="Empey">Heather J. Empey, "The Mothers of the Caliph's Sons: Women as Spoils of War During the Early Almohad Period" in Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History (eds. Matthew S. Gordon & Kathryn A. Hain: Oxford University Press, 2017), p. 151.</ref> Yahya fled to Constantine, but surrendered several months later.<ref name="Baadj" /> He died in comfortable exile in Salé, Morocco, in 1163.<ref name="Huebner" /><ref name="Baadj" /> Abd al-Mu'min enslaved the women and children of Hammadid loyalists who had fought against him, but did not sack Béjaïa because the city had surrendered.<ref name="Empey" />

Some 30 years after the collapse of the Hammadids, the dynasty had a brief revival in 1184, when 'Ali ibn Ghaniya—a member of the Banu Ghaniya branch of the Almoravid dynasty, which had established a corsair kingdom in the Balearic Islands—seized control of Béjaïa, recruited a mixed force of "dispossessed Hammadids, Sanhaja Berbers, and Hilalian tribes" opposed to Almohad rule, and quickly captured Algiers, Miliana, Ashir, and al Qal'a, with the goal of establishing a new Almoravid polity in the Maghreb.<ref name=Huebner/> Less than a year later, the Almohad had recaptured all the towns.<ref name=Huebner/> The Banu Ghaniya did retain, through the end of the Almohad period, some influence in Tripolitania, southern Tunisia, and the Algerian plains, where Hammadid loyalists numbered among their allies.<ref name=Huebner/>

TerritoriesEdit

Template:Cleanup The Hammadid domain stretched across the entirety of the Central Maghreb, comprising the northern expanse of what is now Algeria. At its establishment during Hammad's reign, a pact was forged with his cousin Badis, stipulating that Hammad would retain authority over a substantial swath of the Central Maghreb (Algeria). This encompassed pivotal cities such as M'sila, Achir, and Tahert, alongside the territories of Tobna and Zab, as well as any lands annexed through his conquests.<ref name=":27">Template:Cite book</ref> The kingdom's territories quickly expanded. Following Hammad's death, his son Sultan El Qaid ascended to power, and in 1038, a war erupted against the ruler of Fes. The latter swiftly backtracked and declared submission to the Hammadids.<ref name=":19">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp Under the reign of Sultan Buluggin ibn Muhammad campaigns were conducted in the west to subdue the Zenata tribes.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp He defeated the Zenata and entered Tlemcen in 1058.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> At the same time, the governor of Biskra revolted against the Hammadids, but the rebellion was swiftly suppressed, and he was replaced.<ref name=":18">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp In 1062, Bologhine learned that the Almoravids had seized control of the Maghreb Al Aqsa (Morocco) and launched a campaign into Morocco, pushing back the Almoravids into the desert.<ref name=":18"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp He was assassinated by his successor on his return journey near Tessala.<ref name=":18"/>Template:Rp

Under the reign of Al Nacer (1062–1089) the kingdom experienced the peak of its territorial expansion.<ref name=":21">Template:Cite book</ref> The influence of the Hammadids extended into Ifriqiya (Tunisia),<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp as the governors of Sfax and Tunis, to whom governance was entrusted to the Banu Khurasan,<ref name=":05223"/> submitted to Al Nacer.<ref name=":18"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":18"/>Template:Rp The people of Castilia (Tozeur) were notably brought under Hammadid rule.<ref name=":18"/>Template:Rp Shortly after the submission of these cities, Sultan Al Nacer conquered the city of Laribus, near Kef, in 1066 before entering Qayrawan,<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":24">Template:Cite book</ref> although the latter quickly emancipated itself from Hammadid influence. The cities of Sousse and Tripoli also submitted to Al Nacer.<ref name=":052" /><ref name="Ilahiane 2006 55, 56" /> He also conducted a southern expedition, during which he expelled the Ibadi from Sedrata and ended a revolt in Ouargla by replacing its governor.<ref name=":25">Template:Cite book</ref> His successor Al Mansur later fought the Almoravids in the west,<ref name=":20">Template:Cite book</ref> who continued to raid Hammadid territories. He gathered over 20,000 fighters and marched on Tlemcen,<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp which, after a victorious battle against the armies of Ibn Tachufin,<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp led to an agreement where the boundary between the two kingdoms was set at Tlemcen. In the eastern part of the kingdom, a rebellion broke out but was swiftly quelled by Al Mansour, who managed to recapture Bone from the rebels.<ref name=":18"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp Few territorial changes occurred after the death of Sultan Al Mansour, notable among them being the capture of the island of Djerba by the Hammadid fleet under the reign of Abd Al Aziz,<ref name=":18"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp as well as the reintegration of the Banu Khurasan of Tunis into the Hammadid kingdom.<ref name=":18"/>Template:Rp During the rule of the final monarch, Yahya, in the eastern regions, according to the author of Sahib Al Majam (from Template:Langx), the lands of the Hammadid Sultan Yahya extended to the plains of Sig near Oran, marking the boundary between the Hammadids and the Almoravids.<ref name=":26">Template:Cite book</ref>

AdministrationEdit

The governmental structure represented an Islamic absolute monarchy,<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":29">Template:Cite book</ref> where the head of state held the title of Emir or Sultan<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp and the governance of the emirate was exclusively within the Hammadid dynasty.<ref name=":30">Template:Cite book</ref> They did recognize the spiritual authority of the Fatimid Caliphate at first until the arrival of the Banu Hilal tribes, and then the Abbasid Caliphate at different times.<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":34"/>Template:Rp The Qada (from Template:Langx) or Jurisdiction was separated from the administration and derived its rulings and legislative texts from the Maliki school of thought, which was prevalent among the people of the Maghreb and Al-Andalus.<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp Arabic was the official language in the jurisdiction.<ref name=":31">Template:Cite book</ref> Each city had a judge appointed by the Hammadid Emirs who was responsible for the affairs of Muslims,<ref name=":30"/>Template:Rp including complaints and other matters.<ref name=":31"/>Template:Rp

Initially, the Hammadid emirs personally oversaw the administration of the emirate, later delegating this responsibility to viziers based in the capital,<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp mostly not from the Hammadid dynasty.<ref name=":30"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":34"/>Template:Rp They were given various tasks that included suppressing rebellions such as the Biskra rebellion during Bouloughin's reign and handling diplomatic correspondence with other kingdoms, particularly during Emir El Nacer's time.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp They were also tasked with managing both internal and external affairs.<ref name=":30"/>Template:Rp The Banu Hamdoune (from Template:Langx) family wielded significant influence in the kingdom since Emir Badis' reign.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp Among them, Mimoun ibn Hamdoune served as vizier during the tenure of the last Hammadid Emir Yahya, whose authority grew as the Emir focused on hunting and entertainment.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp The Hammadid central administration included the Diwan al-Insha (from Template:Langx), headed by a secretary,<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp whose importance lies in drafting treaties and agreements.<ref name=":32">Template:Cite book</ref> Next to the Diwan al-Insha, the Hammadids had the Diwan al-Bareed (from Template:Langx), as the emir needed to correspond with other sultans, kings, and caliphs.<ref name=":38">Template:Cite book</ref> The communication system was advanced during the era of the emirate, and mountain fire signals were built,<ref name=":30"/>Template:Rp as reflective mirrors were installed in lighthouses to reflect lights visible from a long distance.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp Thus, the nearby centers received their signals, and all centers transmitted them accordingly. They could have also used carrier pigeons like the Zirids.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp

Regarding the administration of the kingdom's territories, most Umal (from Template:Langx Umal) (governors) were from the royal family, with their number fluctuating depending on the Sultan.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp Each city had its governor appointed by the Hammadid Sultan. Cities like Algiers, Bône, Constantine, Hamza, Achir, and Jijel each had an assigned governor.<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp At its peak under the reign of Al Nacer, the Sultan appointed his brother Kbab, installed in Miliana, to govern the western territories.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp He also tasked the Banu Wemanou, a Zenata tribe located near Relizane, with overseeing the western territories of the kingdom.<ref name=":28">Template:Cite book</ref> His second brother Ruman was assigned the governorship of Hamza (Bouira). The city of Constantine was given to his third brother Balbar, and N'Gaous to his fourth brother Khazar.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":27"/>Template:Rp He also entrusted his son Ibn el Alaa with the governance of Algiers and Mers el Dejaj while his other son Yusuf with that of Achir.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":27"/>Template:Rp Alongside these provinces, there were regions within the kingdom whose governance was assigned to other emirs, such as the region of Tozeur, which was given by Al Nacer to Yusuf ibn Makhluf.<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp During this period, Tunis was under the governance of the Banu Khurasan,<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp and Biskra under the Banu Ruman and later the Banu Sindi, both subject to Sultan Al Nacer.<ref name=":26"/>Template:Rp The city of Sfax was assigned to Hammu Ibn Malil.<ref name=":27"/>Template:Rp Al Nacer also had a governor in Ouargla whose name is not known.<ref name=":27"/>Template:Rp<ref name=":19"/>Template:Rp

Art and architectureEdit

Template:Cleanup

ArchitectureEdit

File:28-2 Kalâa de Beni Hammad (4) (cropped).jpg
Hammadid Minaret

Qal'at Beni Hammad, the dynasty's capital, was described by Al-Bakri in the 11th century as a large and powerful military stronghold and a centre of commerce that attracted caravans from all over the Maghreb, Iraq, Syria, Egypt and the Hejaz.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 14th-century Arab historian and philosopher Ibn Khaldun noted that the abundance of travellers was due to the wealth of resources offered to those interested in sciences, commerce and arts. The Qal'at attracted poets, sages and theologians. It was filled with various richly decorated palaces, caravanserai, gardens and what remained the largest mosque built in North Africa until the twentieth century.<ref name=Corisande>Early Islamic North Africa: A New Perspective. Corisande Fenwick. Bloomsbury Publishing.</ref> The art and architecture of the Hammadids influenced that of the Arabs, Almohads, Almoravids and Normans.<ref>L. Hadda, Zirid and Hammadid palaces in North Africa and its influence on Norman architecture in Sicily, in Word, Heritage and Knowledge, a cura di C. Gambardella, XVI Forum International di Studi-Le vie dei Mercanti, Napoli-Capri 14-16 giugno 2018, Roma 2018, pp. 323-332</ref><ref name=Farrell>World Heritage Sites. By Haiden Farrell</ref><ref name=":22" /><ref name=Dodds />

Hammadid emirs constructed five palaces, most of which are now destroyed. The keep of the Palace of the Fanal (Qasr al-Manar), however, survives to this day.<ref name="Huebner" /> A minaret, Template:Convert in height, is the only remaining part of the ruined Great Mosque; the structure bears some resemblance to Seville's Giralda.<ref name="Huebner" /> The Hammadid mosque is said to have been the largest mosque constructed in North Africa prior to the twentieth century; it has the typical Maghreb-style square minaret.<ref name="Fenwick">Early Islamic North Africa: A New Perspective By Corisande Fenwick</ref> Architecture in Qal'at Bani Hammad featured adornments of "porcelain mosaics of many-colored faience, sculpted panels and plaster, enameled terra-cotta stalactites; building and pottery ornamentation consisted of geometric designs and stylized floral motifs."<ref name="Huebner" />

Ibn Hamdis wrote two different poems describing one of the Hammadid palaces which he described as having interior courts of marble that looked as if they had been carpeted with crystal, and he observed that the grounds looked as if they were strewn with fine pearls.<ref name=Dodds /> His description mentions that the palace had a pool that was bordered by marble lions with water streaming from their mouths; these lions were likely similar to those of the Alhambra.<ref name=Dodds />

In the Qal'at Beni Hammad fragments of stucco were discovered from the Qasr al-Salam and the Qasr al-Manar which may be the oldest fragments of muqarnas in the Western Islamic world, dating back to the 11th or 12th century.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":324">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp According to Lucien Golvin the fragments of the muqarnas semi-dome at the Qasr al-Salam are the oldest documented remains of a true muqarnas vault in the Islamic world.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, other scholars of Islamic architecture have questioned or rejected the dating of these fragments or their identification as true muqarnas.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":22">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":8">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp

Furthermore, the Qal'at buildings are considered to be documented antecedents and precursors to certain developments in Western Islamic art in the 12th century.<ref name=":22" /> Plaster capitals that were found at the Qal'at were composed of smooth leaves recurved in their upper part, considered to be an antecedent to the common Almoravid and Almohad forms which are seen in the Great Mosque of Tlemcen or in Tinmel.<ref name=":22" /> The framework of a marble basin and a grey marble fragment document the use of multifoil arches with spiral-form impost decoration. The use of this motif at the Qal'at subsequently spread during the times of the Almoravids and became universal in Almohad buildings.<ref name=":22" /> The square rooms surrounded by rampant barrel vaults in the Qasr al-Manar have been compared to the Almohad minarets and the Torre Pisana in Palermo which it predates. The Hammadid palaces are also noted to contain the first or one of the first documented use of shadirwan.<ref>Constructions of Power and Piety in Medieval Aleppo By Yasser Tabbaa</ref>

ArtEdit

The excavations in the Qal'at Beni Hammad also discovered the first reference corpus of Islamic ceramics.<ref name="Fenwick" />Template:Verify source The production of ceramics in Al-Andalus during the taifa and Almoravid periods reflect a strong and direct Hammadid influence.<ref name="Dodds">The Art of Medieval Spain, A.D. 500-1200 By Jerrilynn D. Dodds, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.)</ref> The technique of luster-painting on pottery was passed from al Qal-at to Béjaïa to Malaga, and black painted and incised earthenware objects as well as bronze sculptures from the Zirids most likely influenced similar objects in Andalusia.<ref name=Dodds/> Ceramic architectural decorations had never played such a large role in the Islamic world until the Hammadids, and from there it subsequently spread to Al-Andalus and Morocco where it became a hallmark for the architecture of these countries, and it also spread throughout Europe.<ref>Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250: 2nd Edition By Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar, Professor Emeritus of Islamic Art and Architecture Oleg Grabar, Marilyn Jenkins</ref>

Luster-painted and glazed ceramic decoration in a wide variety of shapes and forms were a feature in the Islamic architecture of Hammadid-era Béjaïa.<ref>Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar & Marilyn Jenkins, Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 (2d ed.: Yale University Press, 2001), pp. 276-77, 283.</ref> Al-Nasir reputedly negotiated with Pope Gregory VII for the services of Italian masons and other skilled craftsmen for the construction of Béjaïa.<ref name="Huebner" /> Although Béjaïa is mostly in ruins, a large sea gate reportedly survives.<ref>"Algeria" in Andrew Petersen, Dictionary of Islamic Architecture (Routledge, 1996), p. 13.</ref> The Bab al-Bahr (gate of the sea) was built during an-Nasirs reign, along with five other gates, to protect the town. It is now a ruin consisted of a pointed arch constructed with solid bricks.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Bab al-Bunud was also built in Béjaïa during an-Nasirs reign with hexagonal towers and two ogival-arch gates.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In Béjaïa drawings of a facade of two palaces with ground plans by one of the Hammadids have been preserved and provide an insight into palatial architecture of the time period of the Hammadids. The first palace consisted of a huge domed hall flanked by smaller domed towers and chambers. The second palace, called al-Kukab, as said to have been where the Bordj Moussa is today. al-Kukab consisted of a large centred hall with a gabled roof flanked by side aisles and two small towers.<ref name="Arnold">Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History Felix Arnold Oxford University Press</ref>

The Great Mosque of Constantine was originally constructed by the Hammadids in the 12th century and was built on the ruins of a Roman temple.Template:Citation needed

List of rulersEdit

The following is a list of Hammadid rulers, starting at Hammadid independence from the Zirids in 1015 and ending with the Almohad conquest in 1152:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Hammadid Emirs
Emir Reign
ʿHammad ibn Buluggin 1015 – 1028
Qaid ibn Hammad ibn Buluggin 1028 – 1054
Muhsin ibn Qaid 1054 – 1055
Buluggin ibn Muhammad ibn Hammad 1055 – 1062
An-Nasir ibn Alnas 1062 – 1088
Al-Mansur ibn al-Nasir 1088 – 1105
Badis ibn Mansur 1105
ʿAbd al-Aziz ibn Mansur 1105 – 1121
Yahya ibn Abd al-Aziz 1121 – 1152
End of the Emirate

See alsoEdit

NotesEdit

Template:Notelist

ReferencesEdit

Template:Reflist

Template:Muslim dynasties in Maghreb region Template:Authority control

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