Hanno the Navigator

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Hanno the Navigator (sometimes "Hannon"; Template:Langx, Template:Sc;<ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref> Template:Langx <ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>) was a Carthaginian explorer (sometimes identified as a king) who lived during the fifth century BC, known for his naval expedition along the coast of West Africa. However, the only source of said voyage is a periplus translated into Greek.

Historians have attempted to identify specific locations along Hanno's route, based on the periplus. According to some modern analyses, his expedition could have potentially reached as far south as Gabon; still, according to other sources, he could not have sailed much further than coastal southern Morocco.<ref name="law135" />

BiographyEdit

The name of Hanno was given to many Carthaginians. Ancient texts which specifically mention Hanno the Navigator do not provide much in the way of positively identifying him; some authors referred to him as a king, while others referred to him with the Latin words dux (leader, general) or imperator (commander, emperor).<ref name="schmitz346">Template:Harvnb.</ref> The Greek translation of Hanno's periplus account names him a basileus,<ref name="oiko24">Template:Harvnb.</ref> a term which may be interpreted as "king", but was commonly used for other high-level Carthaginian officials.<ref name="lendering2">Template:Harvnb.</ref>

The consensus of scholarship places Hanno as living sometime in the 5th century BC,Template:Refn identifying him as a member of the aristocratic Magonid family.<ref name="warm62" /> R.C.C. Law identifies Hanno as the son of Hamilcar I.<ref name="law121">Template:Harvnb.</ref>

Periplus accountEdit

Template:Sister project Hanno's account, the periplus (Template:Abbr circumnavigation), remains extant in Greek-language manuscripts. The original version, written in the Punic language, has been lost. The Greek translation is abridged<ref name="translation17">Template:Harvnb.</ref><ref name="lendering1" /> and 101 lines long.<ref name="translation17" /> While it contains contradictions and obvious errors,<ref name="warm64">Template:Harvnb.</ref> it is probably derived from an original Carthaginian text.<ref name="warm62" /> The periplus has survived as "the nearest we have to a specimen of Carthaginian 'literature' "<ref name="warm62">Template:Harvnb.</ref> and one of the few extant accounts of ancient exploration penned by the explorer himself.<ref name="cary184">Template:Harvnb.</ref>

In the fifth century, the text was translated into Greek. Over the centuries, the translation was copied several times by Greek and Greek-speaking Roman clerks. Two copies remain extant, dating to the 9th and 14th centuries.<ref name="lendering1" /> Conrad Gessner produced the first Latin translation, printed at Zurich in 1559.Template:Sfn

SummaryEdit

File:HannoRouteMap.svg

The "Mount Cameroon" interpretation of the route

This summary is based on a translation by Al. N. Oikonomides.<ref name="oikotranslate">Template:Harvnb.</ref> The proper names are unchanged from the translation. It reflects the views of the translator and may ignore more widely accepted theories among scholars.

As the work begins, "this is the report of the periplus of Hanno, king of the Carthaginians, into the Libyan areas of the earth beyond the Pillars of Hercules which he dedicated in the sanctuary of Kronos."<ref name="oiko25">Template:Harvnb.</ref> With 60 ships and 30,000 people, Hanno intends to found cities along the African coast. He first founds one city, then sails some distance and founds five others.<ref group=note>The six cities are named, in the order of the original, Thymiaterion (the first founded), Karikon Teichos, Gytte, Akra, Melitta, and Arambys.</ref> Arriving at a river, the Carthaginians meet the Lixitae, a friendly nomadic tribe. They learn of the nearby Ethiopians, and taking aboard several Lixitae, set sail again. At the small island Kerne, another settlement is built. Around the lake Chretes and an unnamed river, there are savage men and large wild beasts<ref group=note>Hippopotami and crocodiles are the two animals mentioned.</ref> respectively. After returning to Kerne, they sail further south down Africa, finding Ethiopians whose language even the Lixitae interpreters do not understand. Passing further, Hanno finds an "immense opening of the sea",<ref name="oiko27">Template:Harvnb.</ref> from which fires may be sighted. At a bay called the "Horn of the West", they land on an island where humans live. The Carthaginians hurry away in fear<ref group=note>The text does not record any word about an actual interaction between the Carthaginians and the unnamed people on the island.</ref> and reach lands where there are many flames. A very tall mountain is there. Finally arriving at a bay, the "Horn of the South", there is an island with hostile, hirsute men named "Gorillas" (see Template:Section link). Three of them are killed, their skins brought home to Carthage. Having run out of provisions, they do not sail further. The periplus abruptly ends here<ref name="translation17" /> without discussing the return journey.

Textual criticismEdit

Both ancient and modern authors have criticized the work. Most attempts to locate the places described in the periplus based on the reported sailing distances and directions have failed.<ref name="warm64" /> To make the text more accurate, scholars have tried textual criticism. Ultimately, the Carthaginians probably edited the real account to protect their trade: other countries would not be able to identify the places described, while Carthaginians could still boast about their accomplishments.<ref name="warm64" />

Oikonomides theorizes that the hypothetical Punic manuscript that was translated into Greek was incomplete itself: it left out the later parts of the original periplus. The ending of the narrative is abrupt, and it would also have been logically impossible for the expedition to end as described. Therefore, he argues, the final two lines must have been inserted to compensate for an incomplete manuscript.<ref name="translation17" />

ExpeditionEdit

Carthage dispatched Hanno, at the head of a fleet of 60 ships, to explore and colonize the northwestern coast of Africa.<ref name="warm74-6">Template:Harvnb.</ref> He sailed west from Carthage toward the Iberian Peninsula, passing through the Strait of Gibraltar and founding or repopulating seven colonies along the coast of (what is now) Morocco. He then continued at least some distance further south along the continent's Atlantic coast, allegedly encountering various indigenous peoples along his way, who met the fleet with a range of "welcomes".

The gold trade had been a vital foundation of the Carthaginian empire from the fifth century BC, and the desire to secure the gold route to West Africa may have been the original motivation for the exploration of sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="warm61">Template:Harvnb.</ref><ref name="warm64"/>

A number of scholars have commented upon Hanno's voyage, stating that, in many cases, the analyses have been to refine information and interpretation of the original account. William Smith points out that the complement of personnel totalled 30,000 men, and that the core mission included the intent to found Carthaginian (or in the older parlance 'Libyophoenician') towns.<ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref> Other sources have questioned this high number of men, with some suggesting 5,000 to be a more accurate number.<ref name="lendering2" /> R.C.C. Law notes that "It is a measure of the obscurity of the problem that while some commentators have argued that Hanno reached the Gabon area, others have taken him no further than southern Morocco."<ref name="law135">Template:Harvnb.</ref>

Harden reports a consensus that the expedition reached at least as far as Senegal.<ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref> Due to the vagueness of the Periplus, estimates for the voyage's distance range from under Template:Convert to at least Template:Convert.<ref name="murray12">Template:Harvnb.</ref> Some agree he could have reached Gambia. However, Harden mentions disagreement as to the farthest limit of Hanno's explorations: Sierra Leone, Cameroon, or Gabon. He notes the description of Mount Cameroon, a Template:Convert volcano, more closely matches Hanno's description than Guinea's Template:Convert Mount Kakoulima. Warmington prefers Mount Kakoulima, considering Mount Cameroon too "distant".<ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref>

French historian Raymond Mauny, in his 1955 article "La navigation sur les côtes du Sahara pendant l'antiquité", argued that ancient navigators (Hanno, Euthymenes, Scylax, etc.) could not have sailed south along the Atlantic coast much farther than Cape Bojador, in the territory of Western Sahara. Carthage, reportedly, knew of and conducted some trade with the peoples of the Canary Islands; ancient geographers were aware of the archipelago, as well, though nothing further south. Ships with square sails, without a stern rudder, might navigate south, but the winds and currents throughout the year would complicate or prevent the return trip from Senegal to Morocco. Oared ships might be able to achieve the return northward, but only with very great difficulties and a large crew. Mauny assumed that Hanno did not get farther than the mouth of the river Drâa, attributing artifacts found on Mogador Island to the expedition described in the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax (dated mid-4th century BC) and noting that no evidence of Mediterranean trade further south had yet been found. The author ends by suggesting archaeological investigations of the islands along the coast, such as Cape Verde, or the île de Herné ('Dragon Island', near Dakhla, Western Sahara) where ancient adventurers may have been stranded and settled.<ref>Template:Harvnb.Template:Page number needed</ref>

Template:AnchorGorillaiEdit

The end of the periplus describes an island populated with hairy and savage people. Attempts to capture the men failed. Three of the women were taken, but were so ferocious that they were killed, their skins brought home to Carthage.<ref name="translation29">Template:Harvnb.</ref> The skins were kept in the Temple of Juno (Tanit or Astarte) on Hanno's return and, according to Pliny the Elder, survived until the Roman destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, some 350 years after Hanno's expedition.<ref name="lendering1">Template:Harvnb.</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref>

Hanno's interpreters of an African tribe (Lixites or Nasamonians) called the people Gorillai (in Greek, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).<ref name="translation29" /> In 1847, the gorilla, an ape species, was scientifically described and named after the Gorillai. The authors did not affirmatively identify Hanno's Gorillai as the gorilla.<ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref>

Ancient authors' accountsEdit

The text was known to the Roman Pliny the Elder (c. 23–79) and the Greek Arrian of Nicomedia (c. 86–160).

Pliny the ElderEdit

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Pliny may have recorded the time vaguely because he was ignorant of the actual date.<ref name="warm61" /> His claim that Hanno completely circumnavigated Africa, reaching Arabia, is considered unrealistic by contemporary scholarship.

ArrianEdit

Arrian mentions Hanno's voyage at the end of his Anabasis of Alexander VIII (Indica): Template:Quote

HerodotusEdit

Greek historian Herodotus, writing around 430 BC, described Carthaginian trade on the Moroccan coast (Histories 4.196<ref>Template:Harvnb, 4.196.</ref>), though it is doubtful whether he was aware of Hanno's voyage itself.<ref name="warm61" />

LegacyEdit

The lunar crater Hanno is named after him.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

HistoriographyEdit

In the 16th century, the voyage of Hanno saw increased scholarly interest from Europeans in an age when European exploration and navigation were flourishing. Already then, the extent of Hanno's voyage was debated.<ref name="kroupa">Template:Harvnb.</ref>