Hydroxylamine
Template:Short description Template:Redirect-distinguish Template:Chembox
Hydroxylamine (also known as hydroxyammonia) is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Template:Chem2. The compound exists as hygroscopic colorless crystals.<ref name="synth">Greenwood and Earnshaw. Chemistry of the Elements. 2nd Edition. Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd. pp. 431–432. 1997.</ref> Hydroxylamine is almost always provided and used as an aqueous solution or more often as one of its salts such as hydroxylammonium sulfate, a water-soluble solid.
Hydroxylamine and its salts are consumed almost exclusively to produce Nylon-6. The oxidation of [[Ammonia|Template:Chem2]] to hydroxylamine is a step in biological nitrification.<ref name="Structural conservation of the B su">Template:Cite journal</ref>
HistoryEdit
Hydroxylamine was first prepared as hydroxylammonium chloride in 1865 by the German chemist Wilhelm Clemens Lossen (1838-1906); he reacted tin and hydrochloric acid in the presence of ethyl nitrate.<ref>W. C. Lossen (1865) "Ueber das Hydroxylamine" (On hydroxylamine), Zeitschrift für Chemie, 8 : 551-553. From p. 551: "Ich schlage vor, dieselbe Hydroxylamin oder Oxyammoniak zu nennen." (I propose to call it hydroxylamine or oxyammonia.)</ref> It was first prepared in pure form in 1891 by the Dutch chemist Lobry de Bruyn and by the French chemist Léon Maurice Crismer (1858-1944).<ref>C. A. Lobry de Bruyn (1891) "Sur l'hydroxylamine libre" (On free hydroxylamine), Recueil des travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas, 10 : 100-112.</ref><ref>L. Crismer (1891) "Préparation de l'hydroxylamine cristallisée" (Preparation of crystalized hydroxylamine), Bulletin de la Société chimique de Paris, series 3, 6 : 793-795.</ref> The coordination complex Template:Chem2 (zinc dichloride di(hydroxylamine)), known as Crismer's salt, releases hydroxylamine upon heating.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
StructureEdit
Hydroxylamine and its N-substituted derivatives are pyramidal at nitrogen, with bond angles very similar to those of amines. The conformation of hydroxylamine places the NOH anti to the lone pair on nitrogen, seeming to minimize lone pair-lone pair interactions. <ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
ProductionEdit
Hydroxylamine or its salts (salts containing hydroxylammonium cations Template:Chem2) can be produced via several routes but only two are commercially viable. It is also produced naturally as discussed in a section on biochemistry.
From nitric oxideEdit
Template:Chem2 is mainly produced as its sulfuric acid salt, hydroxylammonium sulfate (Template:Chem2), by the hydrogenation of nitric oxide over platinum catalysts in the presence of sulfuric acid.<ref name=Ullmann>Template:Ullmann</ref>
Raschig processEdit
Another route to Template:Chem2 is the Raschig process: aqueous ammonium nitrite is reduced by [[Bisulfite|Template:Chem2]] and [[Sulfur dioxide|Template:Chem2]] at 0 °C to yield a hydroxylamido-N,N-disulfonate anion:
This ammonium hydroxylamine disulfonate anion is then hydrolyzed to give hydroxylammonium sulfate:
Other methodsEdit
Julius Tafel discovered that hydroxylamine hydrochloride or sulfate salts can be produced by electrolytic reduction of nitric acid with HCl or [[Sulfuric acid|Template:Chem2]] respectively:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Hydroxylamine can also be produced by the reduction of nitrous acid or potassium nitrite with bisulfite:
- Template:Chem2
- Template:Chem2 (100 °C, 1 h)
Hydrochloric acid disproportionates nitromethane to hydroxylamine hydrochloride and carbon monoxide via the hydroxamic acid.Template:Cn
A direct lab synthesis of hydroxylamine from molecular nitrogen in water plasma was demonstrated in 2024.<ref name=XiaopingZhang_2024>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Isolation of hydroxylamineEdit
Solid Template:Chem2 can be collected by treatment with liquid ammonia. Ammonium sulfate, Template:Chem2, a side-product insoluble in liquid ammonia, is removed by filtration; the liquid ammonia is evaporated to give the desired product.<ref name="synth" /> The net reaction is:
Base, such as sodium butoxide, can be used to free the hydroxylamine from hydroxylammonium chloride:<ref name="synth" />
ReactionsEdit
Hydroxylamine is a base with a pKa of 6.03:
Hydroxylamine reacts with alkylating agents usually at the nitrogen atom:
The reaction of Template:Chem2 with an aldehyde or ketone produces an oxime.
This reaction can be useful in the purification of ketones and aldehydes: if hydroxylamine is added to an aldehyde or ketone in solution, an oxime forms, which generally precipitates from solution; heating the precipitate with aqueous acid then restores the original aldehyde or ketone.<ref>Ralph Lloyd Shriner, Reynold C. Fuson, and Daniel Y. Curtin, The Systematic Identification of Organic Compounds: A Laboratory Manual, 5th ed. (New York: Wiley, 1964), chapter 6.</ref>
Template:Chem2 reacts with chlorosulfonic acid to give hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
It isomerizes to the amine oxide Template:Chem2.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Functional groupEdit
Hydroxylamine derivatives substituted in place of the hydroxyl or amine hydrogen are (respectively) called O- or NTemplate:Nbhhydroxylamines. In general NTemplate:Nbhhydroxylamines are more common. Examples are NTemplate:NbhtertTemplate:Nbhbutylhydroxylamine or the glycosidic bond in calicheamicin. [[N,O-Dimethylhydroxylamine|N,OTemplate:NbhDimethylhydroxylamine]] is a precursor to Weinreb amides.
Similarly to amines, one can distinguish hydroxylamines by their degree of substitution: primary, secondary and tertiary. When stored exposed to air for weeks, secondary hydroxylamines degrade to nitrones.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
NTemplate:Nbhorganylhydroxylamines, Template:Chem2, where R is an organyl group, can be reduced to amines Template:Chem2:<ref>Smith, Michael and Jerry March. March's advanced organic chemistry : reactions, mechanisms, and structure. New York. Wiley. p. 1554. 2001.</ref>
Oximes such as dimethylglyoxime are also employed as ligands.
SynthesisEdit
The hydrolysis of N-substituted oximes, hydroxamic acids, and nitrones easily provides hydroxylamines.
Alkylating of hydroxylamine or N-alkylhydroxylamines proceeds usually at nitrogen. One challenge is dialkylation when only monoalkylation is desired.
For O-alkylation of hydroxylamines, strong base such as sodium hydride is required to first deprotonate the OH group:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Amine oxidation with benzoyl peroxide is a common method to synthesize hydroxylamines. Care must be taken to prevent over-oxidation to a nitrone. Other methods include:
- Hydrogenation of an oxime
- Amine oxide pyrolysis (the Cope reaction)
UsesEdit
- File:Beckmann-rearangement (cropped).pngConversion of cyclohexanone to caprolactam involving the Beckmann rearrangement.
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Approximately 95% of hydroxylamine is used in the synthesis of cyclohexanone oxime, a precursor to Nylon 6.<ref name=Ullmann/> The treatment of this oxime with acid induces the Beckmann rearrangement to give caprolactam.<ref name="Clayden-2012">Template:Cite book</ref> The latter can then undergo a ring-opening polymerization to yield Nylon 6.<ref name="Pask-2013">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Laboratory usesEdit
Hydroxylamine and its salts are commonly used as reducing agents in myriad organic and inorganic reactions. They can also act as antioxidants for fatty acids.
High concentrations of hydroxylamine are used by biologists to introduce mutations by acting as a DNA nucleobase amine-hydroxylating agent.<ref name="Waugh2006">Template:Cite journal</ref> In is thought to mainly act via hydroxylation of cytidine to hydroxyaminocytidine, which is misread as thymidine, thereby inducing C:G to T:A transition mutations.<ref name="Busby1982a">Template:Cite journal</ref> But high concentrations or over-reaction of hydroxylamine in vitro are seemingly able to modify other regions of the DNA & lead to other types of mutations.<ref name="Busby1982a" /> This may be due to the ability of hydroxylamine to undergo uncontrolled free radical chemistry in the presence of trace metals and oxygen, in fact in the absence of its free radical affects Ernst Freese noted hydroxylamine was unable to induce reversion mutations of its C:G to T:A transition effect and even considered hydroxylamine to be the most specific mutagen known.<ref name="Hollaender1971">Template:Cite book</ref> Practically, it has been largely surpassed by more potent mutagens such as EMS, ENU, or nitrosoguanidine, but being a very small mutagenic compound with high specificity, it found some specialized uses such as mutation of DNA packed within bacteriophage capsids,<ref name="Hong1971">Template:Cite journal</ref> and mutation of purified DNA in vitro.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- File:Celanese synthesis of paracetamol.svgThis route also involves the Beckmann Rearrangement, like the conversion from cyclohexanone to caprolactam.
An alternative industrial synthesis of paracetamol developed by Hoechst–Celanese involves the conversion of ketone to a ketoxime with hydroxylamine.
Some non-chemical uses include removal of hair from animal hides and photographic developing solutions.<ref name="RubberBible87th"/> In the semiconductor industry, hydroxylamine is often a component in the "resist stripper", which removes photoresist after lithography.
Hydroxylamine can also be used to better characterize the nature of a post-translational modification onto proteins. For example, poly(ADP-Ribose) chains are sensitive to hydroxylamine when attached to glutamic or aspartic acids but not sensitive when attached to serines.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Similarly, Ubiquitin molecules bound to serines or threonines residues are sensitive to hydroxylamine, but those bound to lysine (isopeptide bond) are resistant.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
BiochemistryEdit
In biological nitrification, the oxidation of Template:Chem2 to hydroxylamine is mediated by the ammonia monooxygenase (AMO).<ref name="Structural conservation of the B su"/> Hydroxylamine oxidoreductase (HAO) further oxidizes hydroxylamine to nitrite.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Cytochrome P460, an enzyme found in the ammonia-oxidizing bacteria Nitrosomonas europea, can convert hydroxylamine to nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Hydroxylamine can also be used to highly selectively cleave asparaginyl-glycine peptide bonds in peptides and proteins.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It also bonds to and permanently disables (poisons) heme-containing enzymes. It is used as an irreversible inhibitor of the oxygen-evolving complex of photosynthesis on account of its similar structure to water.
Safety and environmental concernsEdit
Hydroxylamine is a skin irritant but is of low toxicity.
A detonator can easily explode aqueous solutions concentrated above 80% by weight, and even 50% solution might prove detonable if tested in bulk.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> In air, the combustion is rapid and complete:
Absent air, pure hydroxylamine requires stronger heating and the detonation does not complete combustion:
At least two factories dealing in hydroxylamine have been destroyed since 1999 with loss of life.<ref>Japan Science and Technology Agency Failure Knowledge Database Template:Webarchive.</ref> It is known, however, that ferrous and ferric iron salts accelerate the decomposition of 50% Template:Chem2 solutions.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Hydroxylamine and its derivatives are more safely handled in the form of salts.
It is an irritant to the respiratory tract, skin, eyes, and other mucous membranes. It may be absorbed through the skin, is harmful if swallowed, and is a possible mutagen.<ref>MSDS Sigma-Aldrich</ref>
See alsoEdit
ReferencesEdit
Further readingEdit
- HydroxylamineTemplate:Dead link
- Walters, Michael A. and Andrew B. Hoem. "Hydroxylamine." e-Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis. 2001.
- Schupf Computational Chemistry Lab
- M. W. Rathke A. A. Millard "Boranes in Functionalization of Olefins to Amines: 3-Pinanamine" Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 6, p. 943; Vol. 58, p. 32. (preparation of hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid).