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Judeo-Italian dialects

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Template:Short description {{#invoke:Hatnote|hatnote}} Template:More footnotes needed {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other Template:Italian language Judeo-Italian (or Judaeo-Italian, Judæo-Italian, and other names including Italkian) is a group of endangered and extinct Jewish dialects, with only about 200 speakers in Italy and 250 total speakers today.<ref name="Ethnologue Data">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The dialects are one of the Italian languages and are a subgrouping of the Judeo-Romance Languages.<ref name="Italian Dialect or Jewish Language?">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Some words have Italian prefixes and suffixes added to Hebrew words as well as Aramaic roots.<ref name="Hebrew Study">Template:Cite book</ref> All of the dialects except Judeo-Roman are now extinct.<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The term Judeo-ItalianEdit

The glottonym {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is of academic and relatively late coinage. In English, the term was first used (as Judæo-Italian) by Lazaro Belleli in 1904 in the Jewish Encyclopedia,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> describing the languages of the Jews of Corfu.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In Italian, Giuseppe Cammeo referred to a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('Judaico-Italian jargon') in a 1909 article.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> That same year, Umberto Cassuto used the term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, in the following (here translated into English):<ref name="Cassuto">Template:Cite journal</ref>

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...It is almost nothing, if you will, even compared with other Jewish dialects, Judeo-Spanish for instance, that are more or less used literally; all this is true, but from the linguistic point of view, Judeo-German is worth as much as Judeo-Italian [{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}], to name it so, since for the glottological science the different forms of human speech are important in themselves and not by its number of speakers or the artistic forms they are used in. Moreover, a remarkable difference between Judeo-German and Judeo-Italian [{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}], that is also valuable from the scientific point of view, is that while the former is so different from German as to constitute an independent dialect, the latter by contrast is not essentially a different thing from the language of Italy, or from the individual dialects of the different provinces of Italy{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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Other designationsEdit

  • Historically, Italian Jews referred to their vernaculars as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), Hebrew for 'foreign language', 'non-Hebrew language'.<ref name=katznelson2008>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> And linguists use {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} as a description of words of Romance origin in Yiddish.Template:Efn This may be connected with the Germanic use of the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (literally, 'foreign') and derived cognates, for Romance peoples and languages and sometimes Celtic peoples and languages (as in English terms Walloons, Wallachians, and Welsh): the Italian and Sephardic Hebrew script for Torah scrolls is known in Yiddish as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.

  • In 1587, David de Pomis used the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in reference to the Italian glosses in his trilingual dictionary. The Hebrew title of the 1609 Venice Haggadah uses the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) for the language of Leone Modena's translation ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).<ref>Template:Cite book In Latin and Hebrew.</ref>
  • Other historic descriptions are {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, both of which were commonly used in the Middle Ages to mean early Italian dialects in general, i.e. Vulgar Latin varieties.<ref name=":2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

  • After the institution of the Ghetto forced Jewish communities throughout Italy into segregation, the term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was identified with local Jewish varieties of regional dialects.
  • Another native name type is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g., Judeo-Florentine {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; < Latin *{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, or an assimilation of the hiatus {{#invoke:IPA|main}} *{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} < *{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).
  • The English neologism Italkian was coined in 1942 by Solomon Birnbaum, based on the modern Hebrew adjective {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'Italian', from the Middle Hebrew adjective {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} meaning 'Italic' or 'Roman'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

ISO and Library of Congress classificationsEdit

The International Organization for Standardization language code for Judeo-Italian / Italkian in the ISO 639-3 specification is Template:Samp; the ISO 639-2 collective language code Template:Samp (for Romance languages) can also apply more generally.

"Italkian" is not used by the US Library of Congress as a subject heading, nor does it figure as a reference to Judeo-Italian. The authorized subject heading is "Judeo-Italian language". Subheadings are:

HistoryEdit

Early HistoryEdit

The first Jewish communities in Italy emerged during the 2nd century BC and were Greek speaking with knowledge of Hebrew and Aramaic. But by 1000 AD the Jewish community in Italy had abandoned Greek and adopted early forms of Italian.<ref name=":2" /> By the 900's AD Hebrew loanwords had begun to find their way into the speech of Italian Jews and Italian writing begins appearing in Hebrew, though the amount of Hebrew influence varies widely.<ref name=":2" />

Later HistoryEdit

During the 16th expulsions led to a massive decline in the amount of Judeo-Italian literature.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> During the 19th century Judeo-Italian had switched from using Hebrew letters to the latin alphabet.<ref name=":2" /> The language began to decline in the early 19th century as Italian Jews were emancipated and began to switch to standard Italian instead of Judeo-Italian.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> At the same time it began to be written down to preserve the language as it declines.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref> By 1900 30,000 people spoke the language, today it is down to 250.<ref name=":2" /> Around 2015 Judeo-Piedmontese went extinct.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> All of the dialects of Judeo-Italian except for Judeo-Roman are now extinct.<ref name=":2" />

Influence on other Jewish languagesEdit

According to some scholars, there are some Judeo-Italian loan words that have found their way into Yiddish.<ref name="Italian Dialect or Jewish Language?"/> For example, the word in Judeo-Italian for 'synagogue' is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, closely related to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'school'. The use of words for 'school' to mean 'synagogue' dates back to the Roman Empire. The Judeo-Italian distinction between {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} parallels the Standard Yiddish distinction between {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} for 'synagogue' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} for 'school'. Another example is Yiddish {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, from the Judeo-Italian {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('gentile', 'non-Jew', 'Christian'), as differentiated from the standard Italian {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, meaning 'noble', 'gentleman'<ref>www.jochnowitz.net</ref> (even if the name can come from Judeo-French and French as well).

There are also several loanwords from Judeo-Italian dialects in Judeo-Gascon, due to the migration of a few Italian families to the Sephardi communities in Gascony during the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>Template:Citation, see pp. 24-25, 353-355.</ref>

DialectsEdit

Judeo-Italian regional dialects ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), these:

UnspecifiedEdit

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Central Judeo-ItalianEdit

Source:<ref name=":5">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Tuscan Judeo-ItalianEdit

Source:<ref name=":5" />

Northern Judeo-ItalianEdit

Source:<ref name=":5" />

VenetianEdit

Gallo-ItalicEdit

Source:<ref name=":5" />

At least two Judeo-Italian varieties, based on the Salentino and Venetian languages, were also used in Corfu<ref>[1]Template:Dead link</ref>Template:Crossreference.

Time based divisionsEdit

It is also divided into two time based varieties which are Early Judeo-Italian which is attested through writings made from 1200 to 1700 and Modern Judeo-Italian attested from 1700 onwards.<ref name=":6" />

CharacteristicsEdit

All of the spoken Judeo-Italian varieties used combination of Hebrew verb stems with Italian conjugations (e.g., {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'to eat'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'to steal'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'to speak'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'to go'). Similarly, there are abstract nouns such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'goodness'. This feature is unique among Jewish languages Template:Citation needed although there are arguably parallels in Jewish English dialect.

Also common are lexical incorporations from Hebrew, particularly those applicable to daily life. Terms from other Jewish languages such as Yiddish and Judeo-Spanish were also incorporated. Bagitto, spoken in Livorno, is particularly rich in loanwords from Judeo-Spanish and Judeo-Portuguese.

It was claimed by Cassuto that most Judeo-Italian dialects reflect the Italian dialect of places further to the south, due to the fact that since the expulsion of the Jews from the Kingdom of Naples, the general direction of Jewish migration in Italy had been northward.<ref name="Cassuto" />

Compared to the non Jewish languages they're related to, the Judeo-Italian languages are relatively similar to each other, with them all being mutually intelligible.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The degree of variation between Judeo-Italian dialects and their base languages (Judeo-Venetian and Venetian, Judeo-Piedmontese and Piedmontese etc.) varies. With some like Judeo-Mantuan being more divergent, others like Judeo-Venetian being less divergent and some like Judeo-Livornese being in the middle.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Works in Judeo-ItalianEdit

The oldest known Judeo-Italian text is found in the margin notes of a copy of the Mishnah written between 1072 and 1073 known as "Mishnah A". One of the most accessible ways to view the Judeo-Italian language is by looking at translations of biblical texts such as the Torah and Hagiographa. For example, the Judeo-Italian language is represented in a 1716 Venetian Haggadah, a Jewish prayer book typically used during a seder, some samples of which are available online.<ref name="Venice Haggadah">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Today, there are two locations, the Oxford Bodleian Library, and the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York, in which many of these texts have been archived.<ref name="Handbook of Jewish Languages">Template:Cite book</ref>

Some notable writers who wrote in Judeo-Italian are: Guido Bedarida who wrote in Bagitto, and Annibale Gallico who wrote in Judeo-Mantuan.<ref name=":0" /> A theater groups named Chaimme 'a sore 'o sediaro e 'a moje (Chaim, the sister, the chairmaker and the wife) performs plays in Judeo-Roman, and Crescenzo Del Monte wrote plays in Judeo-Roman,<ref name=":1" /> and the play Gnora Luna in Judeo-Florentine.<ref name=":7" />

See alsoEdit

NotesEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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BibliographyEdit

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External linksEdit

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