List of European medieval musical instruments
Template:Short description Template:More citations needed Template:Medieval music sidebar This is a list of medieval musical instruments used in European music during the Medieval period. It covers the period from before 5th into the 15th A.D. There may be some overlap with Renaissance musical instruments; Renaissance music begins in the 15th century. The list mainly covers Western Europe. It may branch into Eastern Europe and parts of the Byzantine Empire (Anatolia, northern Africa).
PercussionEdit
| Names and variations | Description | Ethnic connections, regions | Pictures | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adufe<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Pandeiro<ref name="Molina2006">Template:Cite book</ref> |
A frame drum brought to Iberia by Muslims and played mainly by women.<ref name="GroveAdulf">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Used in the charamba in Portugal, a circle dance for couples.<ref name="GroveAdulf" />
The adufe is a square or rectangular frame drum usually made of pine, over which is mounted a goat's skin. The size of the frame usually ranges from 12 to 22 inches on each side, and 1 to 2 inches thick. The skin is stitched on the sides, with the stitches covered by a coloured ribbon. In the interior small seeds, stones or bells are placed to make pleasing sounds. Illustrated examples are decorated, possibly with henna.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
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Iberia Portugal Spain |
File:Musicians, Crusader Bible, MS M.638, fol. 29r.jpg Musicians, Crusader Bible, MS M.638, fol. 29r File:Adufe, Cappella Palatina-ceiling-circa 1140 AD.jpg Circa 1140 A.D., Sicily. A woman in Muslim clothes plays an adufe percussion instrument, in a painting at the Capella Patina. |
File:Crusader Bible (MS M.638, fol. 39r) cropped to show King David and musicians.jpg 1240s A.D., France. An adulf (square held over the group's head) File:Adufe in the Golden Haggadah.jpg Circa 1320, Barcelona. Woman playing an adufe, from an illustration in the Golden Haggadah. | ||||||
Bell
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From the 1st-4th centuries A.D., Christians were persecuted in the Roman Empire and their religious ceremonies were kept secret. After persecution ended with the 313 A.D. Edict of Milan bells became part of open expression of Christianity.<ref name=Vermeer>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> As Christianity became widespread, trumpets, semantrons and bells were used in religious services, including calling worshippers to service.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> Paulinus of Nola (about 400 A.D.) and Pope Sabinianus (about 604 A.D.) are credited for early use of bells in church.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Roger J. Smith 1997">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref> Monks in Byzantine cloisters in Damascus cast some of Christianity's earliest bells (about handbell sized).<ref name=Vermeer/> These were used to broadcast time inside the cloisters.<ref name=Vermeer/> Small cast bells in "Mediterranean tradition" were used by Christians during the first four centuries A.D.<ref name="GroveBell">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> In the 5th century Irish Christians made forged bells of sheet metal, and one was carried by Saint Patrick for use as a church bell.<ref name="GroveBell" /> By St. Columba's day (521-597 A.D.), both riveted sheet-metal bells of iron and quadrangular cast-bronze bells were in use.<ref name="ScottBells">Template:Cite book</ref> The bells were wrung in the Celtic Christian Church, whose missionary work brought Christianity to parts of Europe conquered by Germanic tribes in the fall of the Roman Empire.<ref name="ScottBells" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The bells in Ireland are culturally linked to those in Scotland, Wales, England, Brittany, France, and Switzerland.<ref name="ScottBells" /> Based on number of known bells, Ireland may be source of the region's sheet-metal bell type.<ref name="ScottBells" /> In 530 A.D., the Benedictine Order began to engineer cast churchbells and set up foundries to make them, supplying them throughout western Europe.<ref name="GroveBell" /> Eastern Europe got bells from Constantinople.<ref name="GroveBell" /> Cherson in Crimea also made bells.<ref name="GroveBell" /> Beehive bells were produced on about the 8th-12th centuries A.D.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
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}}</ref> Sugarloaf bells were made starting in the 12th century.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
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}}</ref> Transitional rib and Gothic rib bells were made from the 12th century and into the 17th century.<ref name=Rincker/> |
Latin, western tradition from church
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File:Campana di san patrizio e il suo contenitore, da armagh, co. armagh, VI-VIII secolo, poi 1100 ca. 01.jpg Saint Patrick's Bell. Iron sheet-metal bell, riveted and coated with bronze. Carried by Patrick, and found in his tomb by Saint Columba. Patrick (died circa 450-500 A.D.).<ref name="ScottBells" /> File:Bell of St Ruadhan Anderson 1881 Fig 65 scotlandinearlyc00ande 0223.jpg The Bell of St. Ruadhan of Lorrlia (died 584 A.D.). Cast bronze with decorated handle.<ref name="ScottBells" /> | CitationClass=web }}</ref> File:Saufang Bell, Cologne, 9th c, exh. Benedictines NG Prague, 150743.jpg Circa 9th century A.D., Carolingian Empire. Saufang bell, which hung for centuries in St. Cecilia's Church, Cologne. Iron sheets, forged and riveted with copper nails and bronze coated. |
File:Glocke von Haithabu.jpg Circa 950 A.D., Germany. The bell of Haithabu, a beehive bell. File:Hachen bell.jpg 11th century A.D., Germany. Bell of Hachen, a beehive bell. File:Evangelische Kirche Niederwetz Glocke 4.jpg Early 13th century A.D.,Germany. Evangelist's Bell, Niederwetz, a sugarloaf bell. File:DzwonGrzesznika.jpg citation | CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> |
| Handbells
Chimes Chime bells Bell chime |
In the Roman Empire preceding medieval Europe, bells were known. An example is the tintinnabulum, a wind chime made of small bells.
Racks of hammer struck bells are called chimes.<ref name="Grovechime">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Chimes from cymbalum (Latin).<ref name="Grovechime" /> In Middle Ages (10th-16th centuries) was for indoor instrument made up of 4-12 small bells, hung from a bar and struck with hammers.<ref name="Grovechime" /> Beginning 12th century, may have had "large wooden key installed" to make playing easier and to help play bigger bells.<ref name="Grovechime" /> Depicted in small sets (4 to 5, 8 to 9).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Cymbala, hung in towers became carillons, the bells eventually becoming very large in comparison to the wrack-suspended bells
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Latin, western tradition from church
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File:Bellringers from the Bayeux Tapestry Scene 26, King Edward's funeral procession.jpg Circa 1066-1083 A.D., Normandy. Bellringers from the Bayeux Tapestry Scene 26, King Edward the Confessor's funeral procession File:Chimes and handbell, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg 1448, Germany. Singer with handbell, musician with chimes on a bar. File:Juan Oliver - The Female Saints at the Tomb and the Resurrection detail of the Bell Ringer 1330.jpg 1330 A.D., Pamplona Cathedral. Bell wringer in a painting by Juan Oliver File:Clavichord, bells and psaltery by Perinetto da Benevento.jpg Circa 1438, Italy. Clavichord, chimes and psaltery by Perinetto da Benevento. |
CitationClass=web }}</ref> This would have been hung on a rod or bar and played with a mallet. File:Cantigas - Bell player.jpg Bell table File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 169R cropped.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Miniature from the Cantigas de Santa Maria showing bells hung from a rack resembling church arches (like a carillon?), struck by hammers, but also having clappers.<ref name=Vermeer/> File:Musicians playing handbells and psaltery, detail from Glasgow University Library MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), folio 21V.jpg Musicians playing handbells and psaltery, detail from Glasgow University Library MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), folio 21V | |||||||
Bell
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Used on animals to find them when straying. Used on animal harness. | File:Indirectly struck idiophone (2) Sheep-Bells - Soinuenea.jpg European animal bells (modern but designs go back to medieval era) File:Harness bells, detail of painting by Ezra Winter.jpg Harness bells, detail of painting by Ezra Winter. |
File:Medieval bell (FindID 463906).jpg 1200-1400 A.D., England. A copper-alloy bell, dating from the Medieval period and probably originally serving as a harness pendant. File:The Monk from the Canterbury Tales, detail of painting by Ezra Winter.jpg Crotal bells on harness, detail of painting by Ezra Winter. | ||||||||
| Bumbulum (legendary)
Bunibulum (legendary) |
Some medieval scribes theorized about music from the past, or used musical instruments to illustrate doctrinal points. They copied in manuscript a letter from St. Jerome (342-420 A.D.) to Claudius Postumus Dardanus. In it, Jerome tried to explain pagan and Christian musical instruments that are mentioned in the Bible and their allegorical meanings.<ref>Ad Dardanum, de diversis generibus musicorum instrumentorum.</ref> The letter was reproduced in Christian manuscripts. Starting about 850, scribes began to illustrate the letter in manuscripts, from descriptions of the musical instruments in the letter.<ref name="LOC">Template:Cite book</ref> Some are allegorical and wouldn't work, such as a horn with three mouthpieces for each of the Holy Trinity to blow through; however in an allegory the Trinity would be expressed by speaking through the four outlets, symbolizing the Four Evangelists.
The bumbulum was played by shaking it. It had hanging bells or jingles, suspended from a centerpiece, itself suspended from overhead. It was described as a carpenter's square (signifiying the Holy Cross) with a "four cornered object" hanging from it (signifying Christ on the Cross), with 12 pipes hanging from the object's sides (to jingle and to signify the 12 Apostles).<ref name="Virgung1">Template:Cite book</ref> |
File:Saint Jerome's "Instruments of Hieronymus" and other Music Manuscripts, Image 110.jpg Circa 850-875 A.D., Benedictine Abbey of Saint Emmeran, Germany. Illustrations of St. Jerome's instruments. Top, the bumbulum; below it the tubae blown through by the Trinity; the two instruments below the tubae are psalteriums; below them are a timpanum and chorus (trumpet that splits into two and rejoins at the exit). |
File:Musica getutscht und außgezogen 033.jpg 1511 A.D. Germany. Reproduction of line of images in manuscript that go back into the 850s A.D. At left a bumbulum; at right an organum (pipe organ). | ||||||||
| Clappers
cliquettes castagnettes |
Crottalus, from the Carolingian Empire appear to have been disks or possibly chimes attached to sticks. Cliquettes were blocks of wood held in the palms. The palm-held blocks could make clicking and rattle noises like castanets. Other similar instruments worldwide include the Thai/Cambodian krap sepha, Indian/Nepali khartal, Uzbek/Tajik qairaq, or North African krakebs. Castagnettes were wooden instrument, made up of sticks that were clapped or beaten together.<ref name=uciim>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
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File:Krotala player, from the Mosaic of the Female Musicians, Mariamin.jpg 4th century A.D., Mariamin (Byzantine Empire). Musian playing crotala. File:Clappers from Dagulf psalter.jpg 795 A.D., France or Germany. Carved ivory bookcover, showing man playing crotalus (clappers), from the Dagulf psalter File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-149-PSALM-150 Psaltery and cymbols.jpg Circa 850 A.D. Musicians in the Utrecht Psalter holding a lyre and crotalus (clappers). |
File:Crusader Bible (MS M.638, fol. 39r) cropped for cliqettes.jpg Circa 1250 A.D. Crusader Bible (MS M.638, fol. 39r) cropped for cliquettes. Also a bell and a three-hole pipe (with fipple mouthpiece and duct). File:Cantiga 330 Cantigas de santa maria.jpg 1280 A.D. Cliquettes or clappers (in the woman's hands) from the Musician's Codex, Cantigas de Santa Maria. File:Castagnettes or clapping blocks, Gorleston Psalter, circa 1310-1324 A.D., England.jpg Circa 1310-1324 A.D., England. Castagnettes or clapping blocks, Gorleston Psalter. | |||||||
| Cymbals | Greek word kymbolon transmitted to medieval Europe through Latin (cymbalum -singular, cymbala -plural). Examples in Roman and Byzantine mosaics show girls dancing with them, in different versions that include finger or palm cymbals, cymbals on sticks and cup-shaped cymbals.
The cymbals on sticks (crotala) found their way into art of the Carolingian Empire. In medieval manuscripts, cymbala became bell chimes, bells suspended in series and struck with hammers. Cup shaped cymbals also made their way into medieval manuscripts. Unlike the dancing artwork from Roman and Byzantine mosaics, the Carolingian and later artwork was stripped of sexuality and put into a Christian or Jewish context. |
File:Tiaso (playing cymbala) dances with Dionysus, from a Roman villa at Agora, Argos, Greece, 5th century A.D.jpg 5th century A.D., Roman villa at Agora, Argos, Greece. A dancer in the thiasus plays cymbala and dances with Dionysus. File:Woman playing cymbala (or kymbala), from the Mosaic of the Female Musicians, Mariamin.jpg 4th century A.D., Byzantine Empire. Woman playing cymbala (or kymbala) finger or palm cymbals, from the Mosaic of the Female Musicians, Mariamin |
File:Cymbals in the Valcavado Beaus, folio 199V.jpg 970 A.C. Cymbals in the Valcavado Beaus, Spain File:Cymbals in the Golden Haggadah, circa 1320.jpg Cymbals in the Golden Haggadah, circa 1320 | ||||||||
| Drum | The only drums in Europe reaching into ancient times were "Semitic frame drums", such as the Greek and Roman tympanum.<ref name=MarcuseDrum>Template:Cite book</ref> Larger drums were introduced from "West Asia" in the medieval period.<ref name=MarcuseDrum/> They were played as timekeepers, marking the beat, their "metrical development" not developed yet.<ref name=MarcuseDrum/> | drum, English, starting in the 16th century.
tambour, French<ref name=MarcuseDrum/> tamburo, Italian<ref name=MarcuseDrum/> trommel, German<ref name=MarcuseDrum/> |
File:The Mocking of Jesus scene of the musicians ca 1315-1317 A.D., drum, cymbals, recorder.jpg Circa 1315 A.D., Macedonia. Drum, cymbals and recorder. This drum does not have a snare. |
File:Drum from PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College Cambridge, manuscript B.18, folio 1r.jpg Early 12th century, England. Jongleur in a bear suit playing a drum in "profane music".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> From PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College Cambridge, manuscript B.18, folio 1r | |||||||
| *Frame drum | See pandeiro, tabor
"A tympanum is a piece of skin or leather stretched over a piece of wood on one side." —Isidore of Seville, about 600 A.D. The frame drum in use in Europe before the bigger drums arrived from West Asia can be called tambourines today. Tympanum was used as a name, as well as tabor. These were wooden rings with leather covering one side. At first there were no jingles, as became common. A variant was the pandeiro, introduced with Muslim invasions and pictured in manuscripts in Spain and Sicily. Some tabors could be frame drums, but other grew wider than the hand-held ring which we call tambourine today. Tof was the Hebrew instrument which Miriam played, "most commonly translated" into English as timbrel<ref name="Grove">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Near eastern origin, used by Gauls, Greeks, Romans (tympanum), Egyptians, Assyrians.<ref name="Grove2">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Jingles were probably originally separate from this instrument.<ref name="Grove2" /> Also related to Daff.<ref name="Grove2" /> When jingles are attached, the instrument is classified as a type of rattle, a "frame wrattle," in which the rattles (or jingles) strike the object to which they are attached. A timbrel or Basque tamborello was a "single-skin frame drum with cymbals" (modern tambourine), while a "single-skin frame drum" without jingles could also be labeled tamburin or bendir.<ref name=uciim/> The bendir is also a Muslim frame drum with two snares from North Africa, whose name "probably derives from a Spanish word."<ref name="GroveBendir">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> |
Tympanum, Latin
Tympanon, Greek Tof Timbrel<ref name="jewish encyclopedia">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
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File:Angel with tambourine in Maastricht Book of Hours, folio 129R.jpg 1300-1325 Belgium/Netherlands. Angel with tambourine in Maastricht Book of Hours, folio 129R File:Woman with tambourine or timbrel, Harley MS 6563 Book of Hours, British Library.jpg 14th century, England. Woman with tambourine or timbrel, with both jingles and a snare. |
File:Tambourine player in the Golden Haggadah.jpg 1320 A.D., Barcelona, from the Golden Haggadah; Miriam was known for playing the timbrel File:Woman playing a tambourine, from "The Assumption of the Virgin" by Matteo di Giovanni.jpg 1474, Italy. Woman playing a tambourine, from "The Assumption of the Virgin" by Matteo di Giovanni. | ||||||
| Hourglass drum | Images in miniatures in the Cantigas de Santa Maria and the Valcavado Beatus show an hourglass drum was in use in Spain. Such drums are used in northern Africa and may have entered Europe with the Moorish soldiers who conquered the Iberian Peninsula. The drum also had been painted in Sicily, another place in Europe where Islamic and Christian cultures met. | File:Woman playing hourglass drum, Cappella Palatina-ceiling.jpg Circa 1140 A.D., Sicily. Woman in Muslim clothes playing an hourglass drum, from a fresco in the ceiling of the Cappella Palatina. File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-67 instruments.jpg Circa 850 A.D., Carolingian Empire. Musician with hourglass drum (right), along with rotte (lyre) and harp. |
File:Hourglass Drum in the Valcavado Beaus, folio 199V.jpg 970 A.D., Spain. Hourglass Drum in the Valcavado Beatus, folio 199V | CitationClass=web }}</ref> | |||||||
| Jew's harp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> | File:Medieval copper alloy jews harp (FindID 395253).jpg Circa 11th-15th century A.D. Jaw Harp made of copper alloy, found in Rutland. The instrument is missing its tongue. |
File:Angel playing a guimbarde or Jew's harp, crypt of Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Bayeux.jpg Angel playing a guimbarde or Jew's harp, crypt of Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Bayeux | |||||||||
| Nakers | Appears in English writings from 1352 to 1440<ref name=MarcuseNaker>Template:Cite book</ref> European adaptation of kettledrum from Near East, the naqqâra.<ref name=MarcuseNaker/> Singular naker but played in pairs. | nakers, Middle English<ref name=MarcuseNaker/>
nacaire, French<ref name=MarcuseNaker/> nacchera, Italian<ref name=MarcuseNaker/> nacara, Spanish<ref name=MarcuseNaker/> |
File:Playing nakers, Bodleian Library MS. Bodleian 264, pt. I, folio 58r.jpg One man plays nakers on the move, carried on the shoulders of another man, circa 1338–1410 in Tournai, Belgium; from the Bodleian Library MS. Bodleian 264, pt. I, folio 58r. |
File:Troubadors playing nakers and vielle, Olomouc Bible, folio 276R.jpg 1417, Czechoslovakia. Troubadors playing nakers and vielle, from the Olomouc Bible, folio 276R | |||||||
Rattle
Vessel rattle
Frame rattle (see tambourine) Row or rod rattles |
Rattles in the medieval period included vessel wrattles (crotals) and rod rattles and frame rattles. See also adulfe, clappers or cliquettes, tambourine, triangle
Crotals, also known as jingle bells, were two hemispherical, slotted sheets of metal soldered together, bulging where they connected the sheets into a ball. There was a pellet inside the ball. Historical uses included use by nobility on clothing, armor, tents and knights' horses and dogs, use by ladies for dancing (such as girls wearing bells ""à la morisque" around their hips, arms and ankles" for the reception of Charles V in Spain), and use by the fool as part of his garb (the fool's cap).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> Row or rod rattles; rattles strung on a straight or ring-shaped rod. Medieval triangles are illustrated with rattles in this manner. |
File:Triangle, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg 1448, Germany. Triangle with rod rattles attached. File:Oseberg metal rattle. Likely religious instrument.JPG Circa 834 A.D., Norway. Oseberg metal wrattle, found in a grave in Oseberg. File:Till Eulenspiegel, Bernburg.jpg Jester wearing crotal bells on the bottom of his tunic. File:Himmelkron Engel013.JPG 1473, Germany. Angel with crotals (crotal bells or rattles). |
File:Crotals, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg 1448 A.D., Germany. Crotals (crotal bells). Also considered rattles. File:Shaker, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg Crotal rattle on the end of a handle. Two metal halves welded together (the bulge in the center). File:Eulenspiegelbrunnen (Magdeburg-Altstadt).Detail.ajb.jpg Statue of a Jester or Fool wearing Cap and bells.
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| Cog rattle
Clatter
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Has been used among Catholic Christians in religious ceremonies to replace bells. Among Catholics has been used to replace bells between the Gloria of the Mass of the Last Supper on Maundy Thursday and the Easter Vigil.<ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref>
Among Jewish people a ratchet is used to make noise by the congregation during the celebration of Purim. Sephardi Jews immigrating to Spanish imperial holdings in the Americas following their 1492 expulsion from Spain brought gragers for celebrating Purim, which could pass as the matracha of Catholic usage.<ref name="ES">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
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File:Troccole.jpg Wooden rattle |
File:Purim Exhibition at Heichal Shlomo in Jerusalem (3) (8466740399).jpg Wooden grogger or grager (Purim Noisemaker) | |||||||
| Semantron
(Greek: σήμαντρον) Lignum sacrum Naqus (Arabic: ناقوس) Toacă (Romanian) |
Wooden percussion board, struck with a hammer like a bell. These may be hung horizontally or vertically. Smaller versions may be handheld. In monasteries, they are used to call the monks. Used in Greek Orthodox during Easter week. These are still in use in Eastern Orthodox monasteries and may be made of wood or metal. | Greece
Macedonia Bulgaria Romania Russia Serbia Armenia Israel Syria |
File:The priest Themel puts the Arabs to flight using his semantron.png Circa 1150-1200 A.D., Byzantine Empire. The priest Themel drives off the Arabs of Tarsus, Cilicia, with his semantron. Miniature in the Greek Chronicle Madrid Illuminated Manuscript des Skylitzes. Chapter XI, fol. 132r File:Flickr - fusion-of-horizons - Sinaia Monastery (43).jpg Monk with a semantron in the form of a double paddle, Sinaia Monastery, Romania. |
File:Toacă portabilă, Mănăstirea Mușunoaiele, VN, România.jpg Musunoaiele Orthodox Monastery, Romania. Semantron with holes on each end for hanging, a thin center to handhold, and a mallet. | |||||||
| Tabor | Early snare drum, narrow body compared to width of drumhead, 12th century and later.<ref name=MarcuseTabor>Template:Cite book</ref>
The ensemble that played a three-hole pipe and "small drum" was used throughout western Europe to provide music for dances and was first seen in southern France and northern Spain in the 12th century.<ref name=MarcusePipe_and_Tabor>Template:Cite book</ref> A player played both instruments at the same time.<ref name=MarcusePipe_and_Tabor/> Early drums in Europe were "side drums", slung at the players side or worn over their shoulder, or hung on left arm.<ref name=MarcuseTabor/><ref name="GroveDrum">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> These were tabors, double sided with snares of rope (possibly only on one side.<ref name="GroveDrum" /> The drums were either beaten with two sticks, or played as a pipe and tabor combination.<ref name="GroveDrum" /> Larger drums come on the scene by the 1500s.<ref name="GroveDrum" /> A variation in France uses the tambourine à cordes or tambourine de Bearn, in which a dulcimer or string drum replaces the snare drum.<ref name=MarcusePipe_and_Tabor/> |
tabur, Old French<ref name=MarcuseTabor/>
tabour<ref name=MarcuseTabor/> |
File:Frame drum or tabor, from Crusader Bible, MS M.638, fol. 29r.jpg 1244-1254 A.D., France. Frame drum or tabor, from Crusader Bible, MS M.638, fol. 29r. File:Fra Angelico - Angel beating a Drum detail from the Linaivoli Triptych 1433 brightened cropped.jpg 1433, Italy. An angel holds a small duct flute or pipe and beats a drum. |
File:Cantiga pipe and tabor.jpg Pipe and tabor, from the Cantigas de Santa Maria, circa 1280 A.D. File:Himmelkron Engel037.JPG Circa 1473, Germany. Angel with pipe and tabor. File:Luttrellpsaltertaborer.png Pipe and tabor. The string that holds the tablor in place is visible at the musician's neck. | |||||||
| Tambourine de Bearn
tambourin à cordes<ref name=MarcusePipe_and_Tabor/> string drum tutu-panpan<ref name=MarcusePipe_and_Tabor/><ref name=MarcuseTutu-Panpan>Template:Cite book</ref> ttun-ttun<ref name=MarcuseTuntun>Template:Cite book</ref> buttafuoco |
citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> Appears earlier in sculpture and miniatures as a simple squared box with strings. Later the box becomes more elaborate. Played with 3-hole pipe. Some images shows play using 2 sticks, as well as one stick and fingers. |
File:Jaume Huguet, detail from Marededéu dels Àngels de Vallmoll, 1447-1450.jpg 1447-1450, Spain. Angel playing a string drum or Tambor de cordes, from a painting by Catalan painter Jaume Huguet. File:Juanangelpipepsalterium.gif 17th century, Spain. Convento de la Concepción, Epila, Zaragoza, Aragón, Spain. |
File:Filippino Lippi, Carafa Chapel, Assumption 05.jpg Circa 1489—1491,Rome. Tambourine de Bearn. This instrument is still used in Basque-language areas in Spain, called the ttun-ttun. File:Nakers, string drum and gittern, from Evangeliarium, Sog Troppauer-Evangeliar, Cod 1182 page 2 sharpened.jpg Nakers, string drum and gittern, from Evangeliarium, Sog Troppauer-Evangeliar, Cod 1182 page 2
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| Triangle | File:Perugia, oratorio di san bernardino, rilievi facciata di agostino di duccio 28.JPG Circa 1457–1461, Oratory of San Bernardino, Perugia. Nakers and a triangle. |
File:Musician plays triangle in Olomouc Bible, folio 276R.jpg Musician plays triangle in Olomouc Bible, folio 276R | |||||||||
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String instrumentsEdit
| Names and variations | Description | Ethnic connections, regions | Pictures | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Citole<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref><ref name="Baker: Gittern and Citole">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
File:Citole Robert De Lisle Psalter.jpg Circa 1310 A.D. Citole from the Robert de Lisle Psalter. | |||
| Clavichord | Clavichords were in existence in the "early years of the 15th century."<ref name="GroveClavichord">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Word clavichord found in text from 1404.<ref name="GroveClavichord" /> Earliest known image dates to 1425, in an altarpiece carving in Minden, Germany.<ref name="GroveClavichord" /> | File:Clavichord, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg 1448, Germany. Clavichord, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43 |
File:Clavichord, detail from painting by Perinetto da Benevento.webp Circa 1438, Italy. Detail of a clavichord from a painting by Perinetto da Benevento. | |||
Crwth
Stråkharpa |
Welsh and Middle English words for the 3-5 string bowed instrument included crwth, chorus, crot, and crowd.<ref name="GroveCrwth">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Irish used cruit (indicating a lyre and later a frame harp).<ref name="GroveCrwth"/> Seen in Wales into the 18th century.<ref name="GroveCrwth"/> Modern surviving instruments come from Karelia (jouhikko), the Estonian hiiukannel, Swedish stråkharpa, and Norwegian Talharpa.<ref name="GroveCrwth"/>
It was seen throughout the British Isles, from where it traveled through the Shetland Islands and Norway to Sweden, ending up in Estonia and Finland. Probably related to the rotte lyre of Germany and Anglo-Saxon England; the direction the plucked instrument moved between cultures and who had it first is unknown.<ref name="GroveCrwth"/><ref name="GroveRotteii">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> |
File:Crwth, Westminster Abbey, 14th century A.D.jpg Crwth, Westminster Abbey, 14th century A.D. File:Hiiukandle mängija., AM 12854-169 F 5496-169.jpg An Estonian man playing the hiiu kannel (or, talharpa), ca. 1920. File:Talharpa, by Charlie Bynum, Silver Spoon Music, NL 2014.jpg Talharpa, Norway. |
File:Crwth from Troparium et prosarium Sancti Martialis Lemovicensis BNF Latin 1118 fo 104.jpg 1029 A.D. King David playing the crwth from the Troparium et prosarium Sancti Martialis Lemovicensis, BNF Latin 1118, folio 104. File:Cruth watercolour.jpg Watercolor from the 18th century of a Welsh crwth. File:Stråkharpa - SMV - M1503 01.tif Stråkharpa, bowed lyre from Sweden, also called Jouhikko in Finland. File:Trumpet and crwth, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Latin 2508, folio IIv.jpg Circa 1125, Farfa Abbey, Italy. Men playing trumpet and crwth. The abbey was founded circa 681 A.D. during an era of Christian missions by the Irish. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Latin 2508, folio IIv. | |||
| Dulcimer | A box zither; see psaltery.
"Little is known of the dulcimer before the mid-15th century."<ref name="GroveDulcimer">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Earliest known depiction is on ivory carving for book cover, 12th century A.D.<ref name="GroveDulcimer" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
CitationClass=web }}</ref> David (playing hammered dulcimer) and his musicians, detail of ivory bookcover of Melisende Psalter, Egerton MS 1139/1, British Library File:Allegory of Music (Echecs amoureux).jpg Circa 1496–1498, France. Allegory of Music, in a manuscript of Echecs amoureux, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Français 143, fol. 65v File:Himmelkron Engel022.JPG 1473, Germany. Angel with a hammer dulcimer. File:Hammer dulcimer from Chronicles of Lord JEHAN FROISSART sharpened.jpg 15th century, France. Hammer dulcimer from Chronicles of Lord JEHAN FROISSART, Français 2644, folio 154v. |
File:Hammer Dulcimer in painting by Bartolomeo della Gatta, circa1473.jpg Hammer Dulcimer in painting Assumption of Mary by Bartolomeo della Gatta, circa 1473. File:Hammer Dulcimer, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg 1448, Germany. Hammer Dulcimer, Detail from Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43. File:Angels playing hammered dulcimer and harp, detail from fresco in the Madonna-del-Brichetto, Morozzo, Italy.jpg 1491, Italy. Angels playing hammered dulcimer and harp, detail from fresco in the Madonna-del-Brichetto, Morozzo. | ||
| Fiddle see also | File:David, St Albans Psalter, page 56.jpg David playing music on a fiddle. From St. Albans Psalter, page 56. |
File:Memling - The reliquary of Saint Ursula, 0040147057.jpg 14th century, Flemish artwork. Fiddle in the Reliquary of Saint Ursula. Fiddles such as this have been labeled fiddle, rabel and vielle. Names don't imply different instruments, but possibly reveal variations in music traditions. File:Fiddle from Theodore Psalter page 191r Ps.151. 7-8 - David killing Goliath sharpened.jpg Fiddle from Theodore Psalter, folio 191R, 11th century A.D., Byzantine Empire | ||||
| Gittern<ref name="Baker: Gittern and Citole" /> | ||||||
| Guitarra latina | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
File:Guitar latina morisca.jpg Instrument on left has been called guitarra latina and citole. Instrument on right has been called guitarra morisca (Moorish guitar) and vihuela peñola (quill plucked guitar). |
File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 039V.jpg Fiddle at left could be called a vielle. Instrument on left has been called both guitarra latina and citole. | ||
| Guitarra morisca<ref name="galpin1">Template:Cite book</ref> |
File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 140V.jpg unknown guitarra File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 133R.jpg unknown guitarra |
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Medieval harp (Medieval form of the modern harp)
|
Template:See
Not counting the ancient Greek harps, earliest depictions of harps in Europe include examples in Scotland (the Nigg Stone, late 8th century) and Ireland (early images in stone carvings appear to show oblong, c-shaped and triangular harps or lyres.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref>). Other early works can be seen from France, such as the ivory cover to the Dagulf Psalter in France and the 9th century illustrations in the Utrecht Psalter. Harps were strung throughout Europe with gut strings. Exceptions include Ireland (where strings were of metal) and Wales (where portable harps used horsehair strings through the 17th century A.D.).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> For comparison of harps from across the ancient and medieval world, look at angular harps, arched harps, and konghou. |
File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-80 cithara and harp.jpg Circa 850 A.D., Utrecht Psalter, France. Anglo-Saxon drawn illustration of harp and cythara. File:Տավիղ միջնադարյան արծաթե գավաթի վրա.jpg Armenian art included for comparison. Medieval harp, date unknown, resembles Anglo-Saxon/French harp in Utrecht Psalter. File:Harper, Bodleian Library MS. Junius 11 folio 54.jpg Circa 1000 A.D., England. Anglo-Saxon drawing of a harper. Bodleian Library MS. Junius 11 folio 54 File:Harp from Theodore Psalter page 191r Ps.151. 7-8 - David killing Goliath sharpened.jpg Harp from Theodore Psalter, 11th century A.D., Byzantine Empire File:David, Siegburger Psalter, Vienna. ÖNB, Cod. lat. 1879, fol. 104v sharpened.jpg 12th century A.D. France. David playing harp, a musician playing cornett at his feet, a vielle player behind him. |
File:Angel with harp from Nigg Stone.jpg Circa 790-799 A.D., Nigg Stone, from Nigg, Highland, Scotland. File:David, Asaph and Eman, from Cambridge University manuscript Ff 1.23, folio 4v.jpg Late 10th-11th century A.D., England. Drawing from Anglo Saxon manuscript. This has been called a Welsh harper.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> File:Earliest Irish harp on the Breac Máedóc reliquary, circa 1000-1100 A.D.jpg Circa 1000-1100 A.D. Ireland. Early depiction of a cláirseach. Earlier depictions are known, but with different shapes. File:Westminster Psalter David.jpg Circa 1200 A.D, England. David playing a harp. Resembles Celtic harp. File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 341R cropped.jpg Circa 1280 A.D., Spain. Sephardic Jewish musicians playing harps in the Musicians Codex of the Cantigas de Santa Maria. | ||
| Lute<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> | File:Cantigas de Santa María, Codex of the musicians, B-I-2 162R lute rebab.jpg Rebec or rebab (left), lute right. |
File:Llaüt.jpg Circa 1376, Spain. Lute player, detail from Mare de Déu de la Llet (Our Lady of Milk) by Lorenzo Zaragoza. | ||||
| Lyra | Fiddle, related to rebec | File:Lyres-creta.jpg Later versions of the Cretan lyra, from a museum in Athens. |
File:Byzantine Lyra Museo Nazionale.jpg Circa 900 – 1100 A.D. Lyra on a Byzantine ivory casket, Museo Nazionale, Florence | |||
| Lyre | Germanic lyre, used in northwestern Europe in the early medieval period (circa 450 A.D.) into the 13th century.<ref name="rotte">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> There are 21 mentions of the lyre in Anglo-Saxon poetry, five of these in Beowulf.<ref name=21mentions>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
File:Trossinger Leier 1 ALM.jpg Trossingen lyre. Found in a 6th-century grave in Trossingen, Germany. File:King David with a lyre, from the Worms Bible, BL Harley 2804, folio 3v.png 1025-1075 A.D., Germany. Rotte (or Rotta) round lyre. File:Illuminated Initial 'B' with David playing the lyre (CBL W 040, f.7r, detail).jpg 1240 and 1260, Germany. |
File:Durham Cathedral Library MS B II 30 Cassiodorus on the Psalms folio 81V.jpg Five-string lyre from the Durham Cassiodorus, 8th-century A.D., England File:Hearpere.jpg King David with his lyre, Vespasian Psalter, 8th century A.D. File:NF.1904-0194.jpg Kravic lyre, excavated at the Kravic farm in Numedal, Norway. Made of pine with seven strings. File:Woman with lyre, Germany circa 1125-1150, from the Zwiefalten Passionale.jpg Woman with lyre, Germany circa 1125-1150, from the Zwiefalten Passionale | ||
| Monochord | The monochord was a theoretical instrument illustrated in religious miniatures. A single string zither, which could produce different notes by pressure and plucking. | File:Man with monochord and chime bells, from the PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College, B.18, folio 1r.jpg Man with monochord and chime bells, from the PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College, B.18, folio 1r |
File:Boethius.jpeg Early 12th century A.D. Monochord, illustrated in manuscript of Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius, Cambridge, University Library Ii.3.12, fol. 61v. File:Himmel 011.JPG 1473, Germany. Angel with a monochord. | |||
| Nyckelharpa | Played by bow across strings; keys on the neck raised strings up to be sounded. | viola a chiavi, Italian | File:Viola a chiavi Siena 1408.jpg 1408, Siena, Italy. Viola a chiavi (key viola). |
File:Sweden tolfta church angels with nyckelharpa (cropped 1).jpg 1450-1500, Sweden. Nyckelharpa played by angel. | ||
| Organistrum (large form of medieval hurdy-gurdy) | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> Played in churches and monastic schools until the 13th century A.D.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy>Template:Cite book</ref> After 13th century the instrument declined, and fell into disuse in the 14th.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> Outside of the church it was used for popular music and folk music, and later by beggars.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> Initially a fiddle shaped instrument with a hand crank, which turned a wheel.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> The wheel rubbed against all the strings at once making them sound.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> Strings were sounded simultaneously, with outer strings acting as drones and center strings (which the keys activated) used for melody.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> At first it was played by two individuals: one turned the crank while the other worked "key rods" to change the musical pitch of the strings.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> As the instrument became a smaller, one-person instrument, key rods became "push levers".<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> The new mechanism required that the instrument be tilted as it was played.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the 10th century A.D., Odo of Cluny wrote a work (Quomodo organistrum construatur) that helped readers make an instrument.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> |
organae instrumentum, Latin<ref name=MarcuseOrganistrum>Template:Cite book</ref>
organistrum, circa 942 A.D-14th century.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> symphonia, 12th-16th centuries<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> hurdy-gurdy, starting 18th century<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> symphonie, chifonie, armonie, Vielle à roue, French<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> Leier, German<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> gaita del pobre, vihuela de rueda, sinfonía, chifonía, zanfoña, Spanish<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}} </ref> |
File:Organistrumsantiago20060414.png 12th century A.D., Spain, Organistrum" of the Portico of Glory, Santiago de Compostela. File:Organistrum.png 1340, Germany. Organistrum or Leier. |
File:Viola-de-rueda, detail from the Tríptico-relicario del Monasterio de Piedra, in Zargosa, Spain, 1390 A.D.jpg 14th century A.D., Spain. Organistrum of the Triptych in the Monastery of Piedra, Zaragoza. File:Symphonia Cantigas Sta María 160.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Symphonia, a name used for the hurdy-gurdy or organistrum from the 12th century on.<ref name="GroveSymphonia">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> File:Woman sitting with hurdy-gurdy, Luttrell Psalter, England, 1325-40, British Library Add MS 42130, folio 81v.jpg 1325-1340 A.D., England. Woman with symphonia, Luttrell Psalter, Add MS 42130, folio 81v File:Himmelkron Engel021.JPG 1473, Germany. Angel with a Leier. |
| Psaltery | File:MP Salterio.jpg 1390 A.D., Monastery of Piedra, Spain. Triangular psaltry. File:Musician with psaltery from the Psalterium cum Canticis ('Werdener Psalter') Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ms. theol. lat. fol. 561.jpg circa 1029-1050, Germany. Psaltery played vertically, with musician standing. File:King David and musicians, frescoe at the Philanthropinon monastery,Ioaninna.jpg King David and musicians, frescoe at the Philanthropinon monastery, Ioaninna. |
File:B-I-2 260R large psaltery.jpg 1280 A.D. Cantigas de Santa Maria. Psaltery being played with two hands, probably base at bottom to treble strings higher. File:Don Simone Camaldolese, circa 1380, David with psaltery.jpg 1380 A.D., Florence, Italy. King David playing psaltery. | ||||
| Rabel | Fiddle, probably variation of rebec. Survives today in Basque speaking areas; historically had leather soundboard; modern instruments may have wooden soundboard. The instrument traveled to the Spanish colonies in America, where it can be found today in Panama. | File:Vielle player with flutist, detail from Glasgow University Library MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), folio 21V.jpg 1170 A.D. Fiddle player with flutist. Glasgow University Library MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), folio 21V File:Galician rabel.jpg Modern Galacian rabel File:Soria santo domingo1.jpg Musicians from the arch of the 12th entury A.D. West portal of Santo Domingo Church, Soria, Spain File:Rabel 01.jpg Rabel from Cantabria, at the Ethnographic Museum of Cantabria |
File:Moradillo Sedano iglesia San Esteban Arquivolta 1 Dovela 7.png Unnamed fiddle. Possibly rabel or vihuela de arco or rebec. Santiago Catedral Quintana File:Rabel S. XVIII.jpg 18th century, Cantabria. Rabel constructed in area where tradition still existed. File:Museo Etnográfico de Cantabria 131.jpg Rabel at the Ethnographic Museum of Cantabria | |||
| Rebab
Rabé morisco |
Rebab is a word for various kinds of fiddle in the Muslim world. Spelling is loose, because Arabic does not write down vowels sounds. Rabab, rebab, rubab, ribab have all been used, and some of them are used for plucked instruments in Asia as well. | File:Rabel.jpg Bowed instrument resembling Maghreb rebabs. Spanish and Catalonian names for this include Rebac and Rabel (both are instruments played on the arm, rather than the knee), but its shape closely resembles these. File:Zaragoza - Museo - María, Reina de los Cielos - Ángel violín.JPG circa 1437. Angel performing for Mary, Queen of Heaven playing a rebab. Panel of the Altarpiece of Santa María la Mayor of Albalate del Arzobispo (province of Teruel). It is preserved in the Museum of Zaragoza. |
File:Cantiga rabé morisco.jpg Rebabs from 1280 A.D. that resemble modern Maghreb rebabs. These have also been called rabé morisco (Moorish rebecs). File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 193V cropped.jpg Instrument seen only in Cantigas de Santa Maria. Resembles guitarra but is played vertically like a rebab or a later viol (viola de gamba or vihuela de gamba). Unlike these, it is shown played vertically while standing. | |||
| Rebec<ref name="iastate">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
File:Rebac.jpg 1509, Bruges. Rebec player with 3-string instrument File:Rei David, Santiago de Compostela.jpg Rabel or possibly rebec. Line around edge of soundboard indicates this instrument had a skin soundboard. |
File:Rebec from harley ms 4951 folio 297V.jpg 11th century A.D. Rebec or fiddle from Harley manuscript 4951, folio 297V in the British Library. File:Juan Oliver - The Females Saints at the Tomb and the Resurrection detail of the rebec player 1330.jpg 1330 A.D. Pamplona Cathedral. Rebec player with 2-string instrument. | |||
| Rotte | File:Elders with a psaltery and rota, Santo Domingo de Soria.jpg Two of the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse with a psaltery and rota, Santo Domingo de Soria File:Elder of the Apocalypse with rota, Santo Domingo de Soria.jpg One of the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse with a rota, Santo Domingo de Soria |
File:King David playing rotte, Psalter of Polirone, Mantua, Teresiana Library, ms. 340, f. 1v-2r.jpg Circa 1100 A.D., Italy. King David playing rotte accompanied by a man playing fiddle, from the Psalter of Polirone, Mantua, Teresiana Library, ms. 340, f. 1v-2r. File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 062V.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. A king and a musician play the Rota. Cantigas de Santa Maria, Codex of the Musicians. File:Obradoiro David 02-01.JPG 13th century, Spain. King David playing a probable rotte, Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela. Harps were stylized at this point; this instrument does not have obvious soundbox as on a harp (either deep or wide to create a sound chamber). | ||||
| Tromba marina
Trumpet marine |
File:Trumpet Marine, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg 1448 A.D., Germany. Tromba marina. | |||||
| Vielle
Vièle |
File:Viella2.jpg Modern reproduction of vielle. File:Fidulaconfrascos.JPG Modern reproduction of vielle or viola de arco. File:Taddeo di bartolo, madonna col bambino, angeli e santi, 1400, 05 angelo con viola.jpg 1417 A.D. Italy, Painting Madonna of the Belvedere by Ottaviano Nelli |
File:Vihuela de arco en las Cantigas de Alfonso X el Sabio.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Possible vielles. Could also be vihuela de arco File:Ormesby Psalter Vielle.jpg 1310 A.D., England. Vielle in the Ormesby Psalter. | ||||
| Vihuela
Viola |
In the Iberian Peninsula, small lutes are pictured, which have been considered as possible cytharas and citoles. In Portugal, the tradition remained into the modern era, the instruments called violas. They were vihuelas in Spain. Vihuela eventually became a large guitar-like instrument of the Renaissance. Violas remained small. The name viola has been reused for a variety of instruments including viola da gamba, viola (a modern fiddle). | File:Rylands Beatus Cythara 2.jpg 1175 A.D., Rylands Beatus File:Viola or vihuela from the Zwiefalten Passionale.jpg 1125-1150, Zwiefalten Passionale. Two men (troubadours?) with musical instruments: a small figure-8 guitar (right) and a set of panpipes (left). |
File:Rylands Beatus Cythara 1.jpg 1175 A.D., Rylands Beatus File:Rylands Beatus Cythara 3.png 1175 A.D., Rylands Beatus | |||
| Vihuela de arco
Viola de arco Vihuela de arco pequeña (small bowed vihuela) |
The vihuela de arco may be a variant of the vielle. Spain had a variety of fiddles (which predate the violin) in the cathedral artwork and manuscript miniatures. | File:Vihuela de arco y vihuela de péñola en las Cantigas.jpg Possibly the vihuela de arco (bowed vihuela) and vihuela de penola (quill plucked vihuela) The bowed instrument could be called a vielle |
File:Vihuela de arco pequeña en las Cantigas de Alfonso X el Sabio.jpg Vihuela de arco (bowed vihuela). The downward bowed fiddles came to be called Viols, as in Viola de gamba (viol of the legs). Vihuela was the Spanish name, and in Spain the vihuelas became plucked more than bowed. | CitationClass=web }}</ref> | ||
| Zither | ||||||
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Wind instrumentsEdit
| Names and variations | Description | Ethnic connections, regions | Pictures | Pictures | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
See reedpipes below
Double-reed instrument or type of shawm, possibly adapted from Muslim al-buq horn.<ref name="Curt" /> |
File:Cantiga 15.jpg citation | CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=BouterseAlgodonHourglass/> From Cantiga 300 of the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Codex of the Musicians, folio 268v. | |||
| Alboka
Pinole
|
See reedpipes below
Traditional instruments of shepherds. Reedpipes in which the reed body has been replaced by another material such as wood or bone. The single reed (once part of the body of the reedpipe) is now separated; it is now inserted into the instrument's body. The other end of the reed is inserted into the musicians mouth and blown through to produce sound. Hornpipes have a protective cup over the reed, to blow into. Crumhorns also use this protected reed system, though with double reeds.
See also shephard's horn (below) |
File:Txilibrinek egindako alboka.jpg Modern alboka. This one was constructed in the Basque region of Spain or Southern France. File:Albogue.jpg above: Gaita gastore; below: Gaitas serranas. File:Reeds kataglott anaglott.jpg Drawings of tubular single reeds in which the reed is still part of the reed stem. |
File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 304V.jpg 1280 A.D., folio 304v from the Musician's Codex, Cantigas de Santa Maria. Depiction of alboka (left) and reedpipe. File:Pibole, from Frescoe from the church of Vieux Pouzauges, circa 1220 AD.jpg Pibole, from a frescoe in the church of Vieux Pouzauges, circa 1220 AD File:Woman playing a pipe organ, psaltery and reed-tipped horn, The Pilgrim's Book of Body and Soul page 183 sharpened.jpg Illustration of simple hornpipe, a cowhorn with a single reed at the tip, where the musician blows. Simple way to get a noise from a horn. | ||||
| Bagpipes<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> | See article: List of bagpipes
See reedpipes below Reedpipes attached to a leather bag to give a continuous air supply. |
baghèt, N. Italy
duda, Hungary gaita (Iberian Peninsula)
gajda, Balkans
great Highland bagpipe, Scotland
huemmelchen, Germany musette, France<ref name=MarcuseMusette1>Template:Cite dictionary</ref>
säckpipa, Sweden torupill, Estonia xeremia, Mallorca żaqq, Malta |
File:Early bagpipe, circa 1100 AD, Psalter of Polirone.jpg Circa 1100 A.D., Italy. One of the earliest known bagpipe images. Psalter of Polirone File:Canterbury Tales - The Miller - f. 34v detail - Robin with the Bagpype - early 1400s Chaucer.png 1400s, England. Miniature illustration of Robin the Miller, with a 16th-century note "Robin with the Bagpype" from folio 34v of the Ellesmere Manuscript of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. File:Man playing bagpipes, Luttrell Psalter MS 42130, folio 176.jpg England, circa 1320-1340 A.D. Man playing bagpipes, Luttrell Psalter MS 42130, folio 176. |
File:Gaita Cantigas 3.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Bagpipes in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex File:Cantiga bagpipes 2.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Bagpipes in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 330. File:Cantiga bagpipes 1.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Bagpipes in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex. File:Askomandoura pipes.jpg Askomandoura or tsamboura chanters. Mandoura is also the name of a simple mouth-blown reedpipe. | |||
| Bladder pipe | See reedpipes below
Reedpipes in which the player blows into a bag made from a bladder; by puffing their cheeks (to continue air pressure while taking a breath) players could keep a continual air flow going to the reeds. |
File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page 209R.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Bladder pipes in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 209R. File:Bladder Pipe, at Karlštejn Castle.jpg 14th century, Karlštejn Castle. Angle with bladder pipe. |
File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 227R.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Bladder pipes in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 277R. File:Bladder Pipe MET 202661.jpg Circa 1875. Bladder pipe, double reed, wood, leather, pig's bladder. | ||||
| Buisine
Anafil Trompe |
See horn and wooden trumpet below.
The nafir was a Muslim instrument, adapted by Europeans and renamed the anafil in Spain<ref name=MarcuseAnafil>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> and the buisine in France.ú<ref name=MarcuseBuisine>Template:Cite dictionary</ref>ú The buisine (first mention about 1100 A.D.) was a long, slightly curved horn, used in battle for signaling.<ref name=MarcuseBuisine/> It was replaced by the nafir, the name transferred to the new instrument.<ref name=MarcuseBuisine/> The new buisine was of brass, copper or silver, 4-7 feet long, made in sections that could be assembled with "bosses" covering the joints.<ref name=MarcuseBuisine/> In 12th century trompe in French (also Catalan, Spanish and Portuguese variants) is recorded for an instrument that is "long and straight." Used in battles as a signal horn, in tournaments and weddings for atmosphere. By the 17th century the trompe had a single coil.<ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> Europeans developed the instrument further into the herald trumpet or clarion near the end of the medieval period. |
Initially in Spain (during the Reconquista), and France and other parts of Europe during the Crusades. | File:Stuttgarter Psalter - Cod.bibl.fol.23, folio 163v cropped for buisine.jpg Circa 800-850 A.D., Carolingian Empire, Stuttgarter Psalter. Before applying to Saracen instruments, buisine applied to long horns and trumpets.<ref name=MarcuseBuisine2>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-149-PSALM-150 trumpet 2.jpg Circa 850 A.D., Utrecht Psalter, France/Germany. Wooden trumpets drawn by Anglo-Saxon artists. File:BambergApocalypseFolio019v7AngelsWith7TrumpetsAnd1WithCenser.JPG 1000 A.D. Angels blowing horns for the Apocalypse. Europeans in this era depicted horns as the instruments of war. |
File:Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al-Wâsitî 006.jpg 1237, Arabia. Muslim soldiers blowing Nafirs or buqs (warhorns). The Christian world adapted the long trumpets, using them in war and painting them into the hands of angels. File:Cloisters Apocalypse - 1st Trumpet - fire rains on the earth.jpg 1330, France. Angels with busines; an angel blows the first trumpet of the Apocalypse. File:Anafil players, Cantigas de Santa Maria, Bl-2 286R.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Anafils in the Cantigas de Santa Maria. File:Busine player and religious figure, IRHT 062062 2.jpg 1450-1460, France. Man on horseback playing buisine. From the Cloisters Apocalypse. | |||
Clarion
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Clarion today implies high, angelic, pealing notes. That sound was developed, however, as Europeans began to learn to shape and bend sheet-metal tubes for trumpets. Muslims also had trumpets with clarion notes, as part of a mix of trumpet sounds with tenor and bass.<ref name=MarcuseAnafil/> Horns would change too, becoming metal instruments such as the bugle (Old English word for ox). Clarion eventually became a range of notes, within the reach of natural trumpets and bugles. The later medieval and Renaissance cornetts (fingerhole horns) would also come to hit clarion notes. | File:Grotesque with bent trumpet, Hours of Charles the Noble, King of Navarre, 1361-1425, fol. 272r.jpg Grotesque playing a bent-tube trumpet. File:Grotesque with Nafir, Hours of Charles the Noble, King of Navarre, 1361-1425, fol. 316v.jpg 1405 A.D. Grotesque playing an S-curve trumpet. Europeans began to transform the long buisine into shorter trumpets that were easier to handle. File:Pilaster of Angels Sounding Trumpets from the Parapet of a Pulpit MET DP169514.jpg Circa 1302-1310, Italy. Angels heralding the Last Judgment with trumpets. This artwork once flanked a relief of Christ as Judge. The notes would have been piecing, as shorter trumpets hit higher notes. |
File:Frères Limbourg - Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry - mois de mai - Google Art Project cropped.jpg Circa 1412, France. Clarion trumpet, buisine trumpet, 2 shawms File:Black Trumpeter at Henry VIII's Tournament.jpg 1511, England. Heralds, including John Blanke, with clarions or herald trumpets. File:Fra Angelico - Angel holding a Trumpet detail from the Linaivoli Triptych cropped, applied chroma.jpg Fra Angelico - Angel holding a Trumpet detail from the Linaivoli Triptych File:Clarion, by Tobias Stimmer, Kulturgeschichtliches Bilderbuch aus drei Jahrhunderten.jpg Germany 16th century. In the Renaissance the clarion or claretta (in Germany) would be fully developed, as in this wood engraving. | ||||
| Cornett
"Proto-cornetts"<ref name=CornettBrassSocJourn/> Fingerhole trumpets Fingerhole horns |
See horn, shepherd's horn and wooden trumpet below
Best known as a Renaissance instrument (1500s-1600s), cornetts were wooden fingerhole trumpets whose blowhole was so small it required the instrument be played at the side of the mouth. The cornett was likely derived from an animal horn pierced with fingerholes such as the coradoiz.<ref name=MarcuseCornett>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> Later cornetts took on a stylized appearance, the curved instruments somewhat resembling an animal horn. Carved wooden instruments had octagon exterior by the 12th century.<ref name=MarcuseCornett/> In artwork, it may be difficult to know whether an instrument is lip-blown (a trumpet) or a reedpipe (sounded by a reed inserted into the tip, held in the player's mouth).<ref name=CornettBrassSocJourn>Template:Cite journal</ref> |
File:Shepherd's horn.jpg Shepherd's horn with fingerholes, carved from wood. Russia. Ganu rags (Latvian) File:Man on stilts playing cornett, from the British Museum, Royal 14 B V, Membrane 1.jpg 1275-1300 A.D. Man on stilts playing early cornett or fingerhole trumpet, from the British Museum, Royal 14 B V, Membrane 1 File:Cornett, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg 1448, Germany. Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43 |
File:Ethan playing cornett, Pommersfeld Bible, Gräfl ich Schönbornsche Bibliothek, 334, fol. II 148 sharpened levels crop for cornett.jpg 1050-1100 A.D., Germany. Ethan playing a proto-cornett, Pommersfeld Bible, Gräfl ich Schönbornsche Bibliothek, 334, fol. II 148<ref name=CornettBrassSocJourn/> File:Cornett or fingerhole horn, Winchcombe Psalter (MS Ff.1.23).jpg 11th century A.D., Winchcombe Psalter. Proto-cornett or fingerhole horn.<ref name=CornettBrassSocJourn/> File:Musicians playing bells and horn or cornett, from Harley MS 2804, folio 33, the Worms Bible, Germany 12th century.jpg 1025-1075 A.D., Germany. Trumpeter with cowhorn and proto-cornett (right), and bell-chimes (left).<ref name=CornettBrassSocJourn/> | ||||
| Crumhorn | See reedpipes below
A Renaissance/Baroque instrument, the sound mechanism was a bundle of reeds beneath a wooden cap.<ref name=MarcuseCrumhorn>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> The musician blew through the cap.<ref name=MarcuseCrumhorn/> The instrument likely descended from the medieval bladder pipe.<ref name=MarcuseCrumhorn/> |
krumnhorn, Germany<ref name=MarcuseCrumhorn/>
cromorne, tournebout, France<ref name=MarcuseCrumhorn/> |
File:Reed f-alto crumhorn.jpg The reed bundle File:Moderne Krummhoerner.jpg Modern recreations of crumhorns |
File:Dettaglio Presentazione di Gesù al Tempio di Vittore Carpaccio (4).JPG 1510, Italy. Angel with crumhorn, detail of Presentation of Jesus in the Temple by Vittore Carpaccio (1465–1526) | |||
| Flageolet | Originally a "whistle flute" or duct flute from Asia.<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> Used in medieval Europe by the 11th century A.D.<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/>
In Europe it was a flute of the countryside, made of willow (see willow flute below) as late as the mid-13th century.<ref name=Marcuse2Flageolet>Template:Cite book</ref> It was also made of cane or wood (and in one example, copper) with a fipple at the top, which musicians blew through to produce sound.<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/> Later version in 1581 would have 4 fingerholes and 2 thumbholes.<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/><ref name=Marcuse2Flageolet/> It was characterized in 1640 as being shorter than the recorder.<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/> One possible version of the instrument was a short four-holed duct flute (Russpfeif), illustrated in 1511 by Virdung.<ref name="GroveFlageolet">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The flaviol was a flageolet of the Pyrenees, about 6 inches long with one fingerhole and played with one hand with the drum or tabor.<ref name=MarcuseFlaviol>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> Some flaviols may have 3 fingerholes and two vents, one thumbhole and two vents.<ref name=MarcuseFlaviol/> Another, played one-handed with tabor, had a single fingerhole.<ref name=MarcuseFlaviol/> |
flageol, French until 13th century<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/>
flageolet, French from 13th century forward<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/> flaviol, Catalonian, Provincial |
File:Russpfeif, from Musica getutscht und außgezogen by Sebastian Virdung.jpg 1511, Germany. Russpfeif, from Musica getutscht und außgezogen by Sebastian Virdung. |
File:Flabiol Sans.png Modern flabiol from Catalan showing the top with three fingerholes and 2 vents and the bottom with one fingerhole and two vents. | |||
| Fife and drum | The fife is a small transverse flute with 6 fingerholes.<ref name=MarcuseFife>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> Introduced widely to Europe as soldier's instruments during 15th century by Swiss mercenaries.<ref name=MarcuseFife/> Seen in France in 1507 and England in 1510.<ref name=MarcuseFife/> | French
German
Italian
Spanish
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File:Nuremberg chronicles - Four Couples Dancing (CLXXXVIIv).jpg 1493, Nuremberg, Germany. Two musicians with short flute (fife?) and drum play before dancers). | ||||
| Flute | File:Cantiga flute.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Transverse flute in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex. | ||||||
| Duct flute | Duct flute with tapering bore, seen in French art in 11th century A.D., traceable back from modern times into the 12th century.<ref name=MarcuseRecorder>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> Called the recorde in England by about 1400.<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/> In 1400s multiple sizes existed. By 1511, sizes included bass, tenor, alto and soprano instruments.<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/>
Recorders are fairly rare in medieval art, the pipe (for pipe and tabor) being more common. Possibly began main start in European music in Northern Italy in the 14th century, and was established at the beginning of the 16th century.<ref name="GroveRecorder">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> It is difficult to tell from art if a recorder is presented (with a thumb hole) or a "some kind of folk pipe (without the thumb hole)."<ref name="GroveRecorder" /> In comparison, reed pipes had a very limited range of notes (having only 3-4 holes and being played with one hand). Recorders and pipes with the holes requiring two hands to play had a broader range of notes. Another detail difficult to see is the mechanism of sound; recorders are flutes in which the sound is produced by a fipple.<ref name="GroveRecorder" /> Reed pipes such as aulos used reed bundles like a shawm to produce notes, or single reeds like the zummara.<ref name="GroveRecorder" /> Three and four hole pipes have been excavated in Novgorod, dating to the 11th and 15th centuries A.D. The timeline is not clear for the development into flutes with more holes. It isn't certain whether pipes with 3-4 holes were played alone, with a timbrel or tabor, or in pairs. Double flutes in Eastern Europe date back to the 12th-13th centuries.<ref name="RussEncy">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Used in Russia, Belarus, western Ukraine, Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia.<ref name="RussEncy" /> |
recorder, English, late 14th century<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/>
flûte à bec, French<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/> Blockflöte, German<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/> flauto dritto, Italian<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/> flauta de pico, Spanish<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/> |
File:Sopel from Novgorod (RNMM).jpg Sopel from Novgarod File:Dudka, dudka dvoychatka, pyzhatka or pyzhatka (all can be categorized svirel).jpg From the left dudka, dudka dvoychatka (a pair), and pyzhatka (all can be categorized svirel, flutes) |
File:The Mocking of Jesus scene of the musicians ca 1315-1317 A.D., Recorder.jpg Circa 1315 A.D., Macedonia. Possibly a recorder. Otherwise a folk pipe or reed pipe. File:Sopilka "Dvodentsivka" XIX.jpg Solpilka double flute File:Akkordflute and dvojnice.jpg Dvojnice double flute from former Yugoslavia.
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| Double flutes | See: tabor pipe, below
Uses a fipple (hole to blow through, combined with sound producing hole) as on a recorder. Similar to double reedpipes, in that each flute was played with one hand. Some were three hole flutes. Other flutes existed with more holes, still played with one hand, including the Flabiol. |
File:Double flute player, detail from Francesco del Cossa's fresco "Allegory of April, Triumph of Venus", at the Palazzo Schifanoia, painted 1469-70.jpg 1469-1470, Italy. Double flute player, detail from Francesco del Cossa's fresco "Allegory of April, Triumph of Venus". File:Double fipple flute played side-by-side, detail from a painting The Concert of Angels by Gaudenzio Ferrari.jpg 1534-1536, Italy. Double fipple flute played side-by-side, detail from a painting The Concert of Angels by Gaudenzio Ferrari. Appears to be three-hole pipes. |
File:Simone Martini 037.jpg Circa 1312-1317 A.D., Italy. Double flutes and a gittern. The flutes are played like the flabiol, with the pinky finger possibly pressing on holes from the underside and supporting the instrument. File:Double fipple flutes, detail of painting The Concert of Angels by Gaudenzio Ferrari.jpg 1534-1536, Italy. Double fipple flutes, three-hole pipes. File:Double flutes from "The Assumption of the Virgin" by Matteo di Giovanni.jpg Circa 1474, Italy. Double flute, each with full set of fingerholes. From Matteo di Giovanni, Assunzione Della Vergine. | ||||
| Gemshorn | A recorder made from horn.<ref name="GroveGemshorn">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>It was originally made from chamois horn, but in later music, the an ox-horn version filled the gap between the flageolet and the recorder.<ref name="GroveGemshorn" /> It became common to use ox horn after 1375 A.D.<ref name="GroveGemshorn" /> The instrument's popularity in the 15th century led to an organ stop being created by 1511 with the name gemshorn or cor de chamois.<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn>Template:Cite book</ref> It was illustrated by Virdung in 1511, and Agricola in 1528, but may have been in decline in the 16th century.<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/><ref name=gems1/>
The mouthpiece of the instrument is at the top of the wide end of the horn; the large hole has been filled in with a blowing hole left at the top, creating a fipple.<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/> A sound hole to create the sound is cut into the sidewall of the horn, along with fingerholes.<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/> Artwork showing the instrument shows three or four fingerholes on the top.<ref name=gems1>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref> Three fingerholes and a thumb hole will play an octave.<ref name=gems1/> Modern builders have added soundholes.<ref name=gems1/> |
Scottish-English
French
German
Italian
Spanish
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File:Musikinstrumenten-Museum Berlin - Gemshorn - 1106972.jpg 1500-1700 A.D., Germany. Gemshorn with 6 finger holes. Fits description of instrument examined by Sachs, a six holed instrument with a vent in the tip, about 13 inches long.<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/> |
File:GemshornMusicaGetutscht1511.gif Gemshorn in 1511 book, Musica Getutscht, by Sebastian Virdung. Three fingerholes with "dorsal thumbhole".<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/> File:Gemshorn Alt.jpg Modern gemshorn. | ||
| Horn
Bockhorn or Bukkehorn Battle horn War horn |
Trumpets made from cattle horns<ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> (the name bugle from Latin, for buculus or bullock<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>), from other materials and shaped like cattle horns, and other animal horns such as goats (bukkehorn) or sheep (shofar). Carved ivory horns of this style were called oliphants. Words in English: cowhorn, bullhorn, oxhorn, steerhorn.
Horn in English was used in Old English as well; in Beowulf a leader calls his men to battle with a horn.<ref name=BeowulfHorn&Bym>Template:Cite book</ref> Among peaceful uses of these horns was for farmers to call to their cattle herds to bring them in.<ref name="GroveBockhorn">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Could be drilled with as many as three or four fingerholes.<ref name="GroveBockhorn" /> Bockhorns have been found with fingerholes as far back as the Iron Age.<ref name="GroveBockhorn" /> |
Old English: horn used in Beowulf<ref name=BeowulfHorn&Bym/>
Norway/Sweden
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File:Hunter blowing horn, from the Bayeux Tapestry Scene 12.jpg 1066-1883 A.D., Normandy. Hunter blowing horn, from the Bayeux Tapestry File:Le Musée Paul Dupuy - Olifant dit Cor de Roland, XIe siècle 9.5x52 Inv.18036.jpg 11th century A.D., Italy. Olifant, ivory hunting horn. File:Bockhorn - SMV - X22 01.tif Bockhorn made from goat's horn, traditional to Norway and Sweden. Could also be made of ram's horn or cow horn.<ref name="GroveBockhorn" /> File:Hasid-Uman (6).JPG Man playing a shofar in Ukraine. |
File:Nörstmo Halvar Halvarson - SMV - MM 0290 cropped.jpg Circa 1910, Nörstmo Halvar Halvarson, a Swedish man, playing a kohorn (cowhorn). Placing the hand over the end gives some pitch control. File:Baby Sommer 04.jpg Günter Sommer, German man playing a cowhorn. His horn has a mouthpiece, giving him more control of pitch. File:Grosen adarra jotzen.jpg Basque blowing a horn. | |||
| Olifant | Hunting or war horns carved from ivory | File:Hruotlands legendäres Horn Olifant.jpg Oliphant displayed as belonging to Roland, (died 778 A.D., hero of the French epic Chanson de Roland). |
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| Medieval trumpet
Iberian trumpet |
See shepherd's horn and wooden trumpet below | File:Angels receiving seven trumpets - Apocalypse Picture Book, Pierpont Morgan.jpg Circa 1255 A.D., England or France. Apocalypse Picture Book. The top trumpets have texture like birch trumpets. They have fingerholes and narrow mouthpieces and could be cornetts. File:Lip vibration aerophones (Trumpet) - Soinuenea.jpg Picture with a variety of medieval, Renaissance and modern trumpets. The black trumpet from Slovakia (center) is a wood trumpet (two halves carved and glued together), apparently covered with bark like a birch trumpet. |
File:Instrumento de viento ibero.jpg Modern re-creation of Iberian style trumpet, in brass. File:Harley Psalter folio 24v instruments.jpg 1000-1050 A.D., Harley Psalter, England. From the left a fingerhole horn/trumpet, harp, fingerhole horn/trumpet, lute. Harley Psalter; art copied or inspired from earlier Utrecht Psalter. | ||||
| Organ | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> Under reigns of Pepin the short and Charlemagne, the organ was re-introduced to Europe, starting in about 757 A.D.<ref name="TheOrganEncy" /> Theophilus's organ in the 11th century A.D., used bellows activated by body weight.<ref name="GrovePortOrg">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> That was refined to make all air from three bellows enter into a common channel.<ref name="GrovePortOrg" /> Smaller organs are illustrated that are now called portative organs and positive organs. |
File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-149-PSALM-150 organ.jpg 850 A.D., Utrecht Psalter. |
File:Jeduthun playing rebec, Pommersfeld Bible, Gräflich Schönbornsche Bibliothek, 334, fol. II 148.jpg 1050-1100 A.D., Germany. Jeduthun playing rebec. The instrument here was played by pushing and pulling slats to open the pipes. Pommersfeld Bible, Gräflich Schönbornsche Bibliothek, 334, fol. II 148 | |||
| Portative Organ | File:Augustins - Ange jouant de l'orgue - 49 6 124.jpg 1401–1500 A.D. |
File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 185V.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Portative organ in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 185V | |||||
| Positive organ | A tabletop pipe organ | File:(Toulouse) L'Ouïe (La Dame à la licorne) - Musée de Cluny Paris cropped for musicians.jpg 1484–1500, France. One lady plays the pipe organ, with assistance from another on bellows. |
File:DufayBinchois.jpg 1451 A.D. | ||||
| Panpipes
Panflute |
An instrument of shepherds in the late Roman Empire, seen in 3rd century A.D. Christian art. The instrument was widespread, appearing in Chinese art from the Tang dynasty featuring men on the Silk Road. | File:Panpipes from the Benedictine Psalter.jpg 842–850 A.D., Carolingian Empire. Panpipes in the Benedictine Psalter. File:Panpipes in the Panteón de la Real Colegiata de San Isidoro de León.jpg Circa 1180 A.D., Spain. Shepherd playing panpipes. This style of panpipe is a solid block of wood with drilled holes for the flute's tubes. File:Harp, panpipes, horn, from the PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX (RHEIMS?), MS B.18 f.1r.jpg Early 12th century, Rheims, France. King David playing harp, accompanied by panpipes, singing (psalms?) and cowhorn. |
File:Aquileia, buon pastore, pavimento della basilica, 1a metà del IV secolo.jpg 4th century A.D., Aquileia, Italy. Christian artwork of the Good Shepherd theme with panflutes. File:Panpipes, Passionale, pars hiemalis - Cod.bibl.fol.57 number 520-257v.jpg Panpipes, circa 1125–1150, from Passionale, pars hiemalis - Cod.bibl.fol.57 number 520-257v File:Pibole and panpipe, from 1220 fresco, "The Annunciation to Joachim" in the church of Vieux-Pouzauges, France, sharpened tight crop.jpg Panpipes (right) and pibole (reed pipe with single reed, bone body and horn bell). File:Panpipes, detail from “A Pastoral Landscape with Shepherds Playing a Viola and Panpipes” by Albrecht Dürer.jpg Circa 1496, Germany. Shepherds playing panpipes, in detail of painting by Albrecht Dürer. Pipers are made individually and assembled into a group. | ||||
| Pipes | English word for a variety of instruments.<ref name=MarcusePipe/> Tube of wood, reed or other material through which air is blown.<ref name=MarcusePipe/> Sound occurs from interaction of air with a sharp edge, notch, a duct, reed or some other form of mouthpiece.<ref name=MarcusePipe/>
In European instruments the name "pipes" includes:
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Word used in English and Old French<ref name=MarcusePipe>Template:Cite dictionary</ref>
German
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| Reedpipe<ref name=MarcuseReedpipe>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> | See also alboka, in above in this table.
An aerophone in the form of a tube with "vibrating reed" inserted, either at the tip (as in launeddas) or inside the interior (as in a crumhorn or alboka).<ref name=MarcuseReedpipe/> Reeds such as on the launeddas are single reeds; reeds on the shawm are double reeds. Includes bagpipes and bladder pipes (both with internal reeds). Europeans made pipes out of reeds, splitting a reed to make a single reed. A single 3-hole reed pipe could be used for the pipe and tabor. The Launeddas was a more elaborate reed pipe, with multiple pipes; each might have its own reed or one reed might sound multiple pipes. These are more common in medieval art than the recorder (which has more holes and requires both hands to play). Reed pipe traditions around the world include Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Africa. |
File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 201V.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Single-reed pipes, held together as a pair, called zummara. Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 350R. File:Jeduthun, playing a musical instrument with King David, from the Vivian Bible, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Latin 1, folio 215v.jpg Circa 845 A.D., France. Jeduthun was depicted playing the tibia curva, a reedpipe shaped like an Iberian trumpet. No fingerholes visible. File:Single-reed aerophone (fixed) - Soinuenea.jpg Examples of single-reed reedpipes. |
File:CantigasDeSantaMariaPanPipes.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Reed pipes, possibly a launeddas, in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex. The illustration shows multiple pipes sounded by a single reed. File:Double Zhaleika or Zhaleyka reed pipes, Russia and Belorussia.jpg Double Zhaleika or Zhaleyka reed pipes, Russia and Belorussia. Pipes have a split in the sidewall at the top, going with the grain to create a reed. File:Sipsi.jpg Sipsi, reedpipe or clarinet of Aegean region of Greece and Turkey. File:Launeddas llengüeta.JPG Single-reed tips, these from a launeddas. Splits in the tubes are visible that create the reed. File:Mantoura03.jpg Mantoura, a mouth-blown reedpipe from Crete; other mantouras are attached to bags on bagpipes. | ||||
| Double reedpipes
double clarinet diplica |
Reedpipes played in sets, one in each hand. In ancient Greece, the aulos were double reedpipes. | File:Cantiga Santa Maria.jpg 1280 A.D., Spain. Double reedpipes from the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Codex of the musicians. File:Banquet Euaion Louvre G467 n2 cropped.jpg Greece, 460 BC–450 BC. Double-reedpipe tradition predates medieval Europe; ancient Greeks used Aulos. |
File:Diplice1.jpg Set of diplica double reedpipes or clarinets from the Balkans. File:Saronno, Santuario della Beata Vergine dei Miracoli 45 levels, sharpened.jpg 1534-1536, Italy. Double reedpipes, incorporated into a bagpipe. | ||||
| Triple pipes
Cumbrian pipes cuisle triple reedpipes |
File:Cross of the Scriptures, north panel.jpg Circa 900 A.D., Clonmacnoise, Ireland. Triple pipes, carved onto the Cross of Scriptures. File:Launeddas.JPG Launeddas triple-reed pipes |
File:Triple pipes, Hunterian Psalter (Glasgow University Library MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), folio 21V).jpg 1170 A.D., Scotland. Triple pipes from the Hunterian Psalter. File:Triple pipes, Ms. Ludwig III 1 (83.MC.72), fol. 17v.jpg Circa 1255-1260 A.D., England. Triple pipes, detail from Dyson Perrins Apocalypse, Ms. Ludwig III 1 (83.MC.72), fol. 17v | |||||
| Sackbut<ref name="iastate2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
Renaissance instrument, ancestor of the trombone. Medieval variant was clarion or slide trumpet. | File:African-heritage musicians in Portugal, 16th century A.D., from reproduction of painting Retablo di Sant'auta, circa 1522-25.jpg Circa 1522–1525, Portugal, African-heritage musicians in Portugal playing shawms and a sackbut. |
File:Buisine player and clarion player at religious ceremony, Manuscript of Saint-Esprit IRHT 062067 2.jpg A forerunner of the sackbut-trombone was the buisine with an s-curve. | |||
| Shawm<ref name="iastate3">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> oboe |
See reedpipes above
Double-reed instruments. The reed bundle is inserted through a disk (used for breath control, for uninterrupted sound, playing while the musician breathes.) In France, musettes were small oboes until the 16th century, when they became bagpipes.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The musette was a small keyless double-reed chalumeau, with a visibly conical bore and a pear-shaped bell. |
England (Middle English, from French)
France (Old French)
German
Iberian Peninsula
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File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 350R cropped.jpg Musettes (chirimia?, xirimia?) in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 350R. File:Cantiga 330 Cantigas de santa maria.jpg Musettes (chirimia?, xirimia?) and clappers in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 330. File:Asaph, serving King David, from the Vivian Bible, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Latin 1, folio 215v.jpg Circa 845 A.D., France. Clappers and a horn with a very sharp tip to blow through. Possibly could be blown like a cornet or shofar (also have narrow opening), or it could be a reed horn (an oboe with a single reed or shawm/oboe with a double reed). |
File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 276V.jpg Musettes (chirimia?, xirimia?) in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 276V. File:Shawm in the Codex Manesse, written by Heinrich Frauenlob.jpg 1305-1340, Germany. Shawm with reed bundle visible. From the Codex Manesse. File:Shawm, cymbals, horn from Matteo di giovanni, assunzione della vergine, 1474 ca.jpg 1474 A.D., Italy. Shawm, cymbals, sackbut (?), from Matteo di giovanni, assunzione della vergine. | ||
| Shepherd's horn<ref name="Grey" /> | Wooden trumpets, conical tube about 4 ft long with mouthpiece; made of separate sections of hollowed out wood, glued together; bound with bark.<ref name=LurAksdal/><ref name=MarcuseLur>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> In Norway [and Sweden] used by shepherds in mountain pasturage to call to livestock, frighten predators and call signals to surrounding communities.<ref name=LurAksdal/> Shorter lurs could also be used as megaphones.<ref name=LurAksdal/>
Horns constructed of strips of birchbark or alder bark rolled into tubes, or into cups to fit onto the end of flutes or reedpipes. Also fingerhole horn carved of wood. A mouthpiece is inserted; they may have reed tongues (making them reed horns, shawms or obes) a trumpet mouthpiece, or a tip to make them into flutes. Holes may be cut into the bark tube as well.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref><ref name="Grey">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref> Instruments may also be built with a mouthpiece resembling a cup or funnel, in which the player uses his lips to create the sound.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
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Sweden, Russia, Karelia, Belarus, Ukraine, former Yugoslavia
Pastusheskiy rog (Пастушеский рог)
Old Norse lúðr<ref name=LurAksdal>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Norwegian Lur<ref name=LurAksdal/>
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File:Рог из бересты.svg Birch bark reed horn with double reeds visible. File:Kalyada KR 2012 699.jpg Belgorod region, Russia. Reed horn (a toy?) made for a holiday celebration; double reeds that vibrate when blown are inserted at the narrow end. File:Neverlur.JPG Birchbark trumpet or näverlur. |
File:A young Swedish women playing a birch trumpet around 1930 (cropped).jpg 1930, Sweden. Young woman playing a birch trumpet. |
| Clay trumpet | Horns of clay | File:Botzina, segles XII - XIII, carrer dels Juristes, 9, SIAM València.jpg 12th–13th century, Valencia. Horn made from clay. | |||||
| Tabor Pipe | A duct flute with three-holes (or two holes and a thumbhole), with a body of wood or reed. Played with other instruments such as the tabor, tambourin à cordes, handbell, or with a second pipe (see double pipes above). Other recorder variants have been used in this manner including the full-sized recorder and the flageolet or flaviol (see above in table). | French
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File:One-handed tabor pipes - Soinuenea.jpg One handed pipes suitable for accompanying the tabor. |
File:Pipeandbelldavid.png Circa 1240s. The Morgan Bible, Folio 25. Pipe and bell. Like the tabor pipe, this is played with one hand, while the other hand plays a different instrument. File:Peterborough Psalter drum page 154.png 1320 A.D., Peterborough Psalter (Brussels copy). Pipe and tabor | |||
| Willow flute | These instruments are commonly called willow whistles because they use the bark of a willow tree (the tube created when the center is pulled from inside the bark) to make a whistle. The Russian kalyuka also makes a tube for a whistle, often out of thistle. The two instruments are played the same way, by varying the force of the air blown into the mouthpiece, with the end of the tube being covered by the finger or left open. | Norway
Sweden Finland Latvia Lithuania Romania
Russia Ukraine |
File:Willow whistle.jpg Norwegian willow whistle (Seljefløyte) |
File:Fujarka 0211.jpg Three willow pipes or stabules of the Polish people from a music exhibition in Warsaw in 1888. Two are cut with fipples, one is cut as a transverse flute. | |||
| Wooden trumpet | After the fall of the Roman Empire, trumpets of metal were relatively rare in Europe. Europeans used horns (from goats, sheep and cattle) or carved them from wood.
The wooden trumpet was illustrated by Anglo Saxon artists in France in the Utrecht Psalter, circa 850 A.D. They drew long wooden horns with thick metal bands to hold the separate halves of the instrument together. Examples of surviving wooden instruments made in this fashion include the lur found in the Oseberg ship (two hollowed out halves held together with 5 rings or bands<ref name=LurAksdal/>) and also the Irish wooden trumpet. In Ireland, a wooden trumpet was found in the Erne River and attributed to the "early Christian Period...8th-10th century."<ref name="ErneHorn">Template:Cite journal</ref> The yew-wood trumpet was carved in two halves lengthwise and bound together with strips of bronze, with a bronze mouthpiece.<ref name="ErneHorn" /><ref name="ErneRecon" /> This Irish trumpet has resembles trumpets illustrated in the Vespasian Psalter.<ref name="ErneRecon">Template:Cite journal</ref> In literature, the instrument was the beme (byme, bemastocc) in Old English.<ref name=MarcuseBeme>Template:Cite dictionary</ref><ref name=MarcuseByme>Template:Cite dictionary</ref><ref name=MarcuseBemastocc>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> Hygelac (in the late 10th century epic poem Beowulf calls soldiers to battle with "horn and bȳman".<ref name=BeowulfHorn&Bym/> It was the buisine to the French in the epic Chanson de Roland (circa 1100-1120), and the word was used for this instrument until transferred to the later metal instrument in the late 12th century.<ref name=MarcuseBuisine2/> |
Bemastocc (Old-English bem trumpet + stocc wood)<ref name=MarcuseBemastocc/>
Buisine<ref name=MarcuseBuisine2/> Lúðr (Old Norse<ref name=LurAksdal/>)
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File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-149-PSALM-150 trumpet.jpg Utrecht Psalter, 9th century, France. Horns showing signs of assembly (bands around outside) into the shape of cows horns. File:Tiberius Psalter-David wood trumpet.jpg Musician plays a wooden trumpet in the Tiberius Psalter, circa 1075–1250 A.D. File:Wooden trumpets from Vespasian-psalter-122 cotton ms vespasian A I.jpg 8th century A.D., England. Wooden trumpets from Vespasian Psalter (Canterbury Psalter, MS Cotton Vespasian A.I, fol. 30v). | CitationClass=web }}</ref> | File:Horn with bands from Southern portal of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre de Beaulieu, Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne.jpg Circa 1225 A.D. Horn with bands from Southern portal of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre de Beaulieu, Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne | CitationClass=web }}</ref> Disk similar to mouthpiece on trumpet from 14th century. File:The Mocking of Jesus scene of the musicians ca 1315-1317 A.D., wooden trumpet.jpg Circa 1315, Macedonia. Trumpet, possibly wood. File:StrasbourgCath CroisS 20.JPG Circa 1235 A.D., France. Horn with bulging section where two shorter sections were merged to make long horn. No bands, unlike the wooden horns. but has bosses like the buisine; possibly represents a metal horn. File:Pilaster of Angels Sounding Trumpets from the Parapet of a Pulpit MET DP169508.jpg Early 14th century, Italy. Angels with constructed horns in two joints (indicated by the boss in the center of the instrument). |
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Groups of musiciansEdit
- David, Musée du Louvre Objets d'art MR 370.jpg
Circa 795 A.D., Carolingian Empire. Probably from Aachen. Crotala (clappers), harp and fiddle.
- Vespasian-psalter-122 cotton ms vespasian A I.jpg
8th century A.D., England. Vespasian Psalter (Canterbury Psalter, MS Cotton Vespasian A.I, fol. 30v). King David playing the lyre with players on wooden trumpets and horns, and gleomen clapping and dancing,
- Valcavado Beatus, fol. 199v musical band playing for evil.jpg
970 A.D. Spain. Medieval band plays for evil being, from the Valcavado Beatus, folio 199v. From left: trumpet or reedpipe (cowhorn attached to reed body), cymbals, hourglass drum, double reedpipes, cythara, wooden trumpet.
- King David, Asaph, Heman, Ethan and Jeduthun, Winchcombe Psalter, Cambridge University Library, Ff.1.23, folio 4v.jpg
Circa 1025-1050, England, Winchcombe Psalter. King David plays medieval harp surrounded by musicians playing rotte, crwth, cornett (fingerhole horn), and crotals (clappers/cymbals on sticks).
- Musicians with bowed lyre, psaltery, monchord, and dancers, from the Psalterium cum Canticis ('Werdener Psalter') Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ms. theol. lat. fol. 561.png
Circa 1029-1050 A.D., Germany. Musicians with bowed lyre, psaltery, monchord, and dancers, from the Psalterium cum Canticis ('Werdener Psalter') Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ms. theol. lat. fol. 561.
- Tiberius Psalter f30v.png
Circa 1075 A.D., England. King Alfred poses as King David.<ref name=Southworth>Template:Cite book</ref> The dove brings the holy spirit; a juggler and a fiddler perform at top; at bottom a wooden trumpet and cowhorn.
- David and his musicians, Paris, Bibliotheque nationale, f latin 11550, folio 7v.jpg
11th century A.D., France David playing lyre with his and his musicians (playing coradoiz, harp, panpipes and rebec.
- Roma, Bibl. Apostolica Vaticana, Pal. lat. 39, f. 44v sharpened cropped.jpg
Circa 1050 A.D., Germany. Detail from Heidelberg Psalter. Double pipes, cymbala (bells), psaltery, rotte, viola.
- Musicians from the "De rerum naturis" manuscript, Monte Cassino MS Casin 132.jpg
1022-1032, Monte Casino. Musicians from the "De rerum naturis" manuscript, Monte Cassino MS Casin 132; from left cymbals, psaltery, harp or rotte, lute.
- "Expositio in Psalmos" by Odon d'Asti, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Latin 2508, page IIv.jpg
Circa 1125, Italy. Bottom, King David plays rotte; around him are a tabor (frame drum), horn or trumpet, and crwth or fiddle
- Musicians from the Psalter of Polirone.jpg
Circa 1100 A.D., Polirone Abbey, San Benedetto Po, Italy. King David playing a rotte (psaltery), with other musicians on fiddle, bell, bagpipe and horn, from the Musicians from the Psalter of Polirone.
- David playing lyra, Saint Alban's Psalter.jpg
12th century A.D., England. David playing lyra (center), surrounded by (top) musicians with wooden trumpets and nakers, (center) musicians with harps, (bottom) musicians with cymbala (bell chimes), from the Saint Alban's Psalter.
- Musicians from The Book of Divine Works - Liber divinorum operum, written by Hildegard of Bingen.jpg
1172–1174 A.D., Germany. Musicians from The Book of Divine Works by Hildegard of Bingen. From left: harp, flute or recorder, unknown, vielle (with 2 drone strings), panpipes, portative organ.
- De cantu et musica sacra, showing musicians playing monchord, rotte lyre and cymbala bells.jpg
12th century A.D., Germany, copy printed in 1774. Martin Gerber made tracings of this image from a 12th c. manuscript. The original manuscript burned in 1768 with the abbey. Monochord, rotte and cymbala are illustrated.
- B.18, f.1r, PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College Cambridge modified (light sharpen, levels, exposure).jpg
Early 12th century A.D. Top, spiritual music, King David surrounded by musicians. Bottom, carnal or secular music, the devil surrounded by dancers and musicians. From PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, B.18, f.1r, St John's College Cambridge
- Santo Domingo, Soria (21750579249).jpg
12th century A.D., Spain. Some of the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse on the Church of Saint Dominic, Soria. Instruments include rebecs and rabels (both plucked and bowed), rottes, psalteries and a organistrum.
- St. Elizabeth’s Psalter, MS CXXXVII folio 149r, King David holding the rotte (lyre) and musicians playing chime bells, vielle, pipe organ and long horn.jpg
1201–1208 A.D. Germany, St. Elizabeth's Psalter. King David holding the rotte (lyre) and musicians playing chime bells, vielle, pipe organ and long wooden horn
- King David plays hurdy-gurdy, from Simonovskaya Psalter, State Historical Museum, Moscow, Russia.jpg
13th century, Russia. King David (center) plays organstrum or hurdy-gurdy. To David's right (our left) man playing naker (drum with snare), probable oboe, cowhorn, gusli (or rotte). To David's left, one man plays cymbals, while another man holds a psaltery. Bottom left corner (our left), a man plays a bowed lyre. Bottom right, a man with drum and curved drumstick. Simonovskaya Psalter, State Historical Museum, Moscow, Russia.
- Musicians from Ms. Ludwig III 1 (83.MC.72), fol. 17v cropped.jpg
1255–1260 A.D., England. Celebrations with musicians in work titled "The Unburied Bodies of the Two Witnesses and the Rejoicing People", Ms. Ludwig III 1 (83.MC.72), fol. 17v. From left: vielle, triple pipes, tabor or drum, cymbals.
- Meister der Weltchronik des Rudolf von Ems 001.jpg
1340 A.D., Germany. King David with scribes and musicians, detail from World Chronicle of Rudolf von Ems.
- Codex Manesse Heinrich von Meißen (Frauenlob).jpg
1305–1340 A.D., Zurich, Switzerland. Heinrich Frauenlob, a Minnesinger (seated, top) in the Codex Manesse. From bottom left: Tabor, recorder, shawm, vielle, vielle, psaltery, bagpipe.
- F107v b.png
1310, England. Gorleston psalter, folio 107v. Instruments from left: castagnette, harp, singing, rebec, citole, psaltery, tambourine.
- Miriam, the golden Haggadah.jpg
Circa 1320–1330, Catalonia. Women playing instruments from the Golden Haggadah; (from left) cymbals, adufe, lute, timbrel, women dancing.
- King David, wife Musica and musicians.jpg
14th century A.D., Italy. King David, his wife Musica and their children. From manuscript of Manlius Severinus Boethius's De Musica, Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, Ms. VA 14, fol. 47
- Meister der Manessischen Liederhandschrift 004.jpg
1305 and 1340 A.D., Zurich, Switzerland. Codex Manesse showing King Otto IV of Brandenburg playing chess with a woman. Below are busines, tabor drum with two drumsticks, and bagpipes.
- Matteo di Giovanni - The Assumption of the Virgin - 1474FXD.jpg
1474 A.D., Italy. The Assumption of the Virgin by Matteo di Giovanni.
- Angels Melozzo (Pinacoteca Vaticano) 1.jpg
1480 A.D., Italy. Remnants of a fresco from Santi Apostoli, Rome, damaged during renovation in 1711. Triangle,pipe and tabor, vielle, lute, tambourine.
- Noia 2010-06-10-16.jpg
Circa 1434, Spain. Jesus Christ surrounded by twelve men with instruments and wearing crowns, above the main entrance of the Church of San Martiño de Noia.
- Hans Memling - Christ with Singing and Music-Making Angels - KMSKA 778-780.jpg
1480s, Germany. Christ with Singing and Music-Making Angels by Hans Memling.